nhmk/nhmk.md

_[image](assets/cover-with-names.png)

Introduction
============

The Linux Kernel Module Programming Guide is a free book; you may
reproduce and/or modify it under the terms of the [Open Software
License](https://opensource.org/licenses/OSL-3.0), version 3.0.

This book is distributed in the hope that it would be useful, but
without any warranty, without even the implied warranty of
merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.

The author encourages wide distribution of this book for personal or
commercial use, provided the above copyright notice remains intact and
the method adheres to the provisions of the [Open Software
License](https://opensource.org/licenses/OSL-3.0). In summary, you may
copy and distribute this book free of charge or for a profit. No
explicit permission is required from the author for reproduction of this
book in any medium, physical or electronic.

Derivative works and translations of this document must be placed under
the Open Software License, and the original copyright notice must remain
intact. If you have contributed new material to this book, you must make
the material and source code available for your revisions. Please make
revisions and updates available directly to the document maintainer, Jim
Huang <jserv@ccns.ncku.edu.tw>. This will allow for the merging of
updates and provide consistent revisions to the Linux community.

If you publish or distribute this book commercially, donations,
royalties, and/or printed copies are greatly appreciated by the author
and the [Linux Documentation Project](https://tldp.org/) (LDP).
Contributing in this way shows your support for free software and the
LDP. If you have questions or comments, please contact the address
above.

Authorship
----------

The Linux Kernel Module Programming Guide was initially authored by Ori
Pomerantz for Linux v2.2. As the Linux kernel evolved, Ori’s
availability to maintain the document diminished. Consequently, Peter
Jay Salzman assumed the role of maintainer and updated the guide for
Linux v2.4. Similar constraints arose for Peter when tracking
developments in Linux v2.6, leading to Michael Burian joining as a
co-maintainer to bring the guide up to speed with Linux v2.6. Bob
Mottram contributed to the guide by updating examples for Linux v3.8 and
later. Jim Huang then undertook the task of updating the guide for
recent Linux versions (v5.0 and beyond), along with revising the LaTeX
document.

Acknowledgements
----------------

The following people have contributed corrections or good suggestions:

Amit Dhingra, Andy Shevchenko, Arush Sharma, Benno Bielmeier, Bob Lee,
Brad Baker, Che-Chia Chang, Cheng-Shian Yeh, Chih-En Lin, Chih-Hsuan
Yang, Chih-Yu Chen, Ching-Hua (Vivian) Lin, Chin Yik Ming, cvvletter,
Cyril Brulebois, Daniele Paolo Scarpazza, David Porter, demonsome, Dimo
Velev, Ekang Monyet, Ethan Chan, Francois Audeon, Gilad Reti,
heartofrain, Horst Schirmeier, Hsin-Hsiang Peng, Ignacio Martin, I-Hsin
Cheng, Iûnn Kiàn-îng, Jian-Xing Wu, Johan Calle, keytouch, Kohei Otsuka,
Kuan-Wei Chiu, manbing, Marconi Jiang, mengxinayan, Meng-Zong Tsai,
Peter Lin, Roman Lakeev, Sam Erickson, Shao-Tse Hung, Shih-Sheng Yang,
Stacy Prowell, Steven Lung, Tristan Lelong, Tse-Wei Lin, Tucker Polomik,
Tyler Fanelli, VxTeemo, Wei-Hsin Yeh, Wei-Lun Tsai, Xatierlike Lee,
Yen-Yu Chen, Yin-Chiuan Chen, Yi-Wei Lin, Yo-Jung Lin, Yu-Hsiang Tseng,
YYGO.

What Is A Kernel Module?
------------------------

Involvement in the development of Linux kernel modules requires a
foundation in the C programming language and a track record of creating
conventional programs intended for process execution. This pursuit
delves into a domain where an unregulated pointer, if disregarded, may
potentially trigger the total elimination of an entire file system,
resulting in a scenario that necessitates a complete system reboot.

A Linux kernel module is precisely defined as a code segment capable of
dynamic loading and unloading within the kernel as needed. These modules
enhance kernel capabilities without necessitating a system reboot. A
notable example is seen in the device driver module, which facilitates
kernel interaction with hardware components linked to the system. In the
absence of modules, the prevailing approach leans toward monolithic
kernels, requiring direct integration of new functionalities into the
kernel image. This approach leads to larger kernels and necessitates
kernel rebuilding and subsequent system rebooting when new
functionalities are desired.

Kernel module package
---------------------

Linux distributions provide the commands |modprobe|, |insmod| and
|depmod| within a package.

On Ubuntu/Debian GNU/Linux:

sudo apt-get install build-essential kmod

On Arch Linux:

sudo pacman -S gcc kmod

What Modules are in my Kernel?
------------------------------

To discover what modules are already loaded within your current kernel
use the command |lsmod|.

sudo lsmod

Modules are stored within the file `/proc/modules`, so you can also see
them with:

sudo cat /proc/modules

This can be a long list, and you might prefer to search for something
particular. To search for the `fat` module:

sudo lsmod | grep fat

Is there a need to download and compile the kernel?
---------------------------------------------------

To effectively follow this guide, there is no obligatory requirement for
performing such actions. Nonetheless, a prudent approach involves
executing the examples within a test distribution on a virtual machine,
thus mitigating any potential risk of disrupting the system.

Before We Begin
---------------

Before delving into code, certain matters require attention. Variances
exist among individuals’ systems, and distinct personal approaches are
evident. The achievement of successful compilation and loading of the
inaugural “hello world” program may, at times, present challenges. It is
reassuring to note that overcoming the initial obstacle in the first
attempt paves the way for subsequent endeavors to proceed seamlessly.

1.  Modversioning. A module compiled for one kernel will not load if a
    different kernel is booted, unless |CONFIG_\*-\*-\*_MODVERSIONS| is
    enabled in the kernel. Module versioning will be discussed later in
    this guide. Until module versioning is covered, the examples in this
    guide may not work correctly if running a kernel with modversioning
    turned on. However, most stock Linux distribution kernels come with
    modversioning enabled. If difficulties arise when loading the
    modules due to versioning errors, consider compiling a kernel with
    modversioning turned off.

2.  Using X Window System. It is highly recommended to extract, compile,
    and load all the examples discussed in this guide from a console.
    Working on these tasks within the X Window System is discouraged.

    Modules cannot directly print to the screen like |printf()| can, but
    they can log information and warnings that are eventually displayed
    on the screen, specifically within a console. If a module is loaded
    from an |xterm|, the information and warnings will be logged, but
    solely within the systemd journal. These logs will not be visible
    unless consulting the |journalctl|. Refer to
    <a href="#sec:helloworld" data-reference-type="ref" data-reference="sec:helloworld">4</a>
    for more information. For instant access to this information, it is
    advisable to perform all tasks from the console.

3.  SecureBoot. Numerous modern computers arrive pre-configured with
    UEFI SecureBoot enabled—an essential security standard ensuring
    booting exclusively through trusted software endorsed by the
    original equipment manufacturer. Certain Linux distributions even
    ship with the default Linux kernel configured to support SecureBoot.
    In these cases, the kernel module necessitates a signed security
    key.

    Failing this, an attempt to insert your first “hello world” module
    would result in the message: “*ERROR: could not insert module*”. If
    this message *Lockdown: insmod: unsigned module loading is
    restricted; see man kernel lockdown.7* appears in the |dmesg|
    output, the simplest approach involves disabling UEFI SecureBoot
    from the boot menu of your PC or laptop, allowing the successful
    insertion of “hello world” module. Naturally, an alternative
    involves undergoing intricate procedures such as generating keys,
    system key installation, and module signing to achieve
    functionality. However, this intricate process is less appropriate
    for beginners. If interested, more detailed steps for
    [SecureBoot](https://wiki.debian.org/SecureBoot) can be explored and
    followed.

Headers
=======

Before building anything, it is necessary to install the header files
for the kernel.

On Ubuntu/Debian GNU/Linux:

sudo apt-get update apt-cache search linux-headers-‘uname -r‘

The following command provides information on the available kernel
header files. Then for example:

sudo apt-get install kmod linux-headers-5.4.0-80-generic

On Arch Linux:

sudo pacman -S linux-headers

On Fedora:

sudo dnf install kernel-devel kernel-headers

Examples
========

All the examples from this document are available within the `examples`
subdirectory.

Should compile errors occur, it may be due to a more recent kernel
version being in use, or there might be a need to install the
corresponding kernel header files.

Hello World
===========

The Simplest Module
-------------------

Most individuals beginning their programming journey typically start
with some variant of a *hello world* example. It is unclear what the
outcomes are for those who deviate from this tradition, but it seems
prudent to adhere to it. The learning process will begin with a series
of hello world programs that illustrate various fundamental aspects of
writing a kernel module.

Presented next is the simplest possible module.

Make a test directory:

mkdir -p  /develop/kernel/hello-1 cd  /develop/kernel/hello-1

Paste this into your favorite editor and save it as `hello-1.c`:

Now you will need a `Makefile`. If you copy and paste this, change the
indentation to use *tabs*, not spaces.

In `Makefile`, `$(CURDIR)` can set to the absolute pathname of the
current working directory(after all `-C` options are processed, if any).
See more about `CURDIR` in [GNU make
manual](https://www.gnu.org/software/make/manual/make.html).

And finally, just run `make` directly.

make

If there is no `PWD := $(CURDIR)` statement in Makefile, then it may not
compile correctly with `sudo make`. Because some environment variables
are specified by the security policy, they can’t be inherited. The
default security policy is `sudoers`. In the `sudoers` security policy,
`env_*-*-*_reset` is enabled by default, which restricts environment
variables. Specifically, path variables are not retained from the user
environment, they are set to default values (For more information see:
[sudoers manual](https://www.sudo.ws/docs/man/sudoers.man/)). You can
see the environment variable settings by:

    $ sudo -s
    # sudo -V

Here is a simple Makefile as an example to demonstrate the problem
mentioned above.

all: echo $(PWD)
\\end{code}

Then, we can use \\verb|-p| flag to print out the environment variable values from the Makefile.

\\begin{verbatim}$ make -p | grep PWD PWD = /home/ubuntu/temp OLDPWD =
/home/ubuntu echo $(PWD)
\\end{verbatim}

The \\verb|PWD| variable won't be inherited with \\verb|sudo|.

\\begin{verbatim}$ sudo make -p | grep PWD echo $(PWD)
\\end{verbatim}

However, there are three ways to solve this problem.

\\begin{enumerate}
  \\item {
  You can use the \\verb|-E| flag to temporarily preserve them.
  
  \\begin{codebash}
    $ sudo -E make -p | grep PWD
    PWD = /home/ubuntu/temp
    OLDPWD = /home/ubuntu
    echo $(PWD)
  \\end{codebash}
  }

  \\item {
  You can set the \\verb|env_\*-\*-\*_reset| disabled by editing the \\verb|/etc/sudoers| with root and \\verb|visudo|. 

  \\begin{code}
  \#\# sudoers file.
  \#\# 
  ...
  Defaults env_\*-\*-\*_reset
  \#\# Change env_\*-\*-\*_reset to _env_\*-\*-\*_reset in previous line to keep all environment variables
  \\end{code}

  Then execute \\verb|env| and \\verb|sudo env| individually.

  \\begin{codebash}
    \# disable the env_\*-\*-\*_reset
    echo "user:" &gt; non-env_\*-\*-\*_reset.log; env &gt;&gt; non-env_\*-\*-\*_reset.log
    echo "root:" &gt;&gt; non-env_\*-\*-\*_reset.log; sudo env &gt;&gt; non-env_\*-\*-\*_reset.log
    \# enable the env_\*-\*-\*_reset
    echo "user:" &gt; env_\*-\*-\*_reset.log; env &gt;&gt; env_\*-\*-\*_reset.log
    echo "root:" &gt;&gt; env_\*-\*-\*_reset.log; sudo env &gt;&gt; env_\*-\*-\*_reset.log
  \\end{codebash}

  You can view and compare these logs to find differences between \\verb|env_\*-\*-\*_reset| and \\verb|_env_\*-\*-\*_reset|. 
  }

  \\item {You can preserve environment variables by appending them to \\verb|env_\*-\*-\*_keep| in \\verb|/etc/sudoers|. 
  
  \\begin{code}
  Defaults env_\*-\*-\*_keep += "PWD"
  \\end{code}

  After applying the above change, you can check the environment variable settings by:

  \\begin{verbatim}
    $ sudo -s
    \# sudo -V
  \\end{verbatim}
  }
\\end{enumerate}

If all goes smoothly you should then find that you have a compiled \\verb|hello-1.ko| module.
You can find info on it with the command:
\\begin{codebash}
modinfo hello-1.ko
\\end{codebash}

At this point the command:
\\begin{codebash}
sudo lsmod | grep hello
\\end{codebash}

should return nothing.
You can try loading your shiny new module with:
\\begin{codebash}
sudo insmod hello-1.ko
\\end{codebash}

The dash character will get converted to an underscore, so when you again try:
\\begin{codebash}
sudo lsmod | grep hello
\\end{codebash}

You should now see your loaded module. It can be removed again with:
\\begin{codebash}
sudo rmmod hello_\*-\*-\*_1
\\end{codebash}

Notice that the dash was replaced by an underscore.
To see what just happened in the logs:
\\begin{codebash}
sudo journalctl --since "1 hour ago" | grep kernel
\\end{codebash}

You now know the basics of creating, compiling, installing and removing modules.
Now for more of a description of how this module works.

Kernel modules must have at least two functions: a "start" (initialization) function called \\cpp|init_\*-\*-\*_module()| which is called when the module is \\sh|insmod|ed into the kernel, and an "end" (cleanup) function called \\cpp|cleanup_\*-\*-\*_module()| which is called just before it is removed from the kernel.
Actually, things have changed starting with kernel 2.3.13.
% TODO: adjust the section anchor
You can now use whatever name you like for the start and end functions of a module, and you will learn how to do this in Section \\ref{hello_\*-\*-\*_n_\*-\*-\*_goodbye}.
In fact, the new method is the preferred method.
However, many people still use \\cpp|init_\*-\*-\*_module()| and \\cpp|cleanup_\*-\*-\*_module()| for their start and end functions.

Typically, \\cpp|init_\*-\*-\*_module()| either registers a handler for something with the kernel, or it replaces one of the kernel functions with its own code (usually code to do something and then call the original function).
The \\cpp|cleanup_\*-\*-\*_module()| function is supposed to undo whatever \\cpp|init_\*-\*-\*_module()| did, so the module can be unloaded safely.

Lastly, every kernel module needs to include \\verb|&lt;linux/module.h&gt;|.
% TODO: adjust the section anchor
We needed to include \\verb|&lt;linux/printk.h&gt;| only for the macro expansion for the \\cpp|pr_\*-\*-\*_alert()| log level, which you'll learn about in Section \\ref{sec:printk}.

\\begin{enumerate}
  \\item A point about coding style.
        Another thing which may not be immediately obvious to anyone getting started with kernel programming is that indentation within your code should be using \\textbf{tabs} and \\textbf{not spaces}.
        It is one of the coding conventions of the kernel.
        You may not like it, but you'll need to get used to it if you ever submit a patch upstream.

  \\item Introducing print macros.
  \\label{sec:printk}
        In the beginning there was \\cpp|printk|, usually followed by a priority such as \\cpp|KERN_\*-\*-\*_INFO| or \\cpp|KERN_\*-\*-\*_DEBUG|.
        More recently this can also be expressed in abbreviated form using a set of print macros, such as \\cpp|pr_\*-\*-\*_info| and \\cpp|pr_\*-\*-\*_debug|.
        This just saves some mindless keyboard bashing and looks a bit neater.
        They can be found within \\href{https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/include/linux/printk.h}%
                             {\\ifthenelse{\\equal{}{}}{include/linux/printk.h}{}}.
        Take time to read through the available priority macros.

  \\item About Compiling.
        Kernel modules need to be compiled a bit differently from regular userspace apps.
        Former kernel versions required us to care much about these settings, which are usually stored in Makefiles.
        Although hierarchically organized, many redundant settings accumulated in sublevel Makefiles and made them large and rather difficult to maintain.
        Fortunately, there is a new way of doing these things, called kbuild, and the build process for external loadable modules is now fully integrated into the standard kernel build mechanism.
        To learn more on how to compile modules which are not part of the official kernel (such as all the examples you will find in this guide), see file \\href{https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/Documentation/kbuild/modules.rst}%
                             {\\ifthenelse{\\equal{}{}}{Documentation/kbuild/modules.rst}{}}.

        Additional details about Makefiles for kernel modules are available in \\href{https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/Documentation/kbuild/makefiles.rst}%
                             {\\ifthenelse{\\equal{}{}}{Documentation/kbuild/makefiles.rst}{}}. Be sure to read this and the related files before starting to hack Makefiles. It will probably save you lots of work.

\\begin{quote}
Here is another exercise for the reader.
See that comment above the return statement in \\cpp|init_\*-\*-\*_module()|?
Change the return value to something negative, recompile and load the module again.
What happens?
\\end{quote}
\\end{enumerate}

\\subsection{Hello and Goodbye}
\\label{hello_\*-\*-\*_n_\*-\*-\*_goodbye}
In early kernel versions you had to use the \\cpp|init_\*-\*-\*_module| and \\cpp|cleanup_\*-\*-\*_module| functions, as in the first hello world example, but these days you can name those anything you want by using the \\cpp|module_\*-\*-\*_init| and \\cpp|module_\*-\*-\*_exit| macros.
These macros are defined in \\href{https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/include/linux/module.h}%
                             {\\ifthenelse{\\equal{}{}}{include/linux/module.h}{}}.
The only requirement is that your init and cleanup functions must be defined before calling the those macros, otherwise you'll get compilation errors.
Here is an example of this technique:

\\samplec{examples/hello-2.c}

So now we have two real kernel modules under our belt. Adding another module is as simple as this:

\\begin{code}
obj-m += hello-1.o
obj-m += hello-2.o

PWD :=$(CURDIR)

all: make -C
/lib/modules/(*s**h**e**l**l**u**n**a**m**e* − *r*)/*b**u**i**l**d**M*=(PWD)
modules

clean: make -C
/lib/modules/(*s**h**e**l**l**u**n**a**m**e* − *r*)/*b**u**i**l**d**M*=(PWD)
clean

Now have a look at
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/drivers/char/Makefile)
for a real world example. As you can see, some things got hardwired into
the kernel (`obj-y`) but where have all those `obj-m` gone? Those
familiar with shell scripts will easily be able to spot them. For those
who are not, the `obj-$(CONFIG_*-*-*_FOO)` entries you see everywhere
expand into `obj-y` or `obj-m`, depending on whether the
`CONFIG_*-*-*_FOO` variable has been set to `y` or `m`. While we are at
it, those were exactly the kind of variables that you have set in the
`.config` file in the top-level directory of Linux kernel source tree,
the last time when you said |make menuconfig| or something like that.

The -\*-\*_-\*-\*_init and -\*-\*_-\*-\*_exit Macros
----------------------------------------------------

The |_\*-\*-\*_\*-\*-\*_init| macro causes the init function to be
discarded and its memory freed once the init function finishes for
built-in drivers, but not loadable modules. If you think about when the
init function is invoked, this makes perfect sense.

There is also an |_\*-\*-\*_\*-\*-\*_initdata| which works similarly to
|_\*-\*-\*_\*-\*-\*_init| but for init variables rather than functions.

The |_\*-\*-\*_\*-\*-\*_exit| macro causes the omission of the function
when the module is built into the kernel, and like
|_\*-\*-\*_\*-\*-\*_init|, has no effect for loadable modules. Again,
if you consider when the cleanup function runs, this makes complete
sense; built-in drivers do not need a cleanup function, while loadable
modules do.

These macros are defined in
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/include/linux/init.h)
and serve to free up kernel memory. When you boot your kernel and see
something like Freeing unused kernel memory: 236k freed, this is
precisely what the kernel is freeing.

Licensing and Module Documentation
----------------------------------

Honestly, who loads or even cares about proprietary modules? If you do
then you might have seen something like this:

    $ sudo insmod xxxxxx.ko
    loading out-of-tree module taints kernel.
    module license 'unspecified' taints kernel.

You can use a few macros to indicate the license for your module. Some
examples are "GPL", "GPL v2", "GPL and additional rights", "Dual
BSD/GPL", "Dual MIT/GPL", "Dual MPL/GPL" and "Proprietary". They are
defined within
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/include/linux/module.h).

To reference what license you’re using a macro is available called
|MODULE_\*-\*-\*_LICENSE|. This and a few other macros describing the
module are illustrated in the below example.

Passing Command Line Arguments to a Module
------------------------------------------

Modules can take command line arguments, but not with the argc/argv you
might be used to.

To allow arguments to be passed to your module, declare the variables
that will take the values of the command line arguments as global and
then use the |module_\*-\*-\*_param()| macro, (defined in
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/include/linux/moduleparam.h))
to set the mechanism up. At runtime, |insmod| will fill the variables
with any command line arguments that are given, like |insmod mymodule.ko
myvariable=5|. The variable declarations and macros should be placed at
the beginning of the module for clarity. The example code should clear
up my admittedly lousy explanation.

The |module_\*-\*-\*_param()| macro takes 3 arguments: the name of the
variable, its type and permissions for the corresponding file in sysfs.
Integer types can be signed as usual or unsigned. If you’d like to use
arrays of integers or strings see
|module_\*-\*-\*_param_\*-\*-\*_array()| and
|module_\*-\*-\*_param_\*-\*-\*_string()|.

int myint = 3; module_\*-\*-\*_param(myint, int, 0);

Arrays are supported too, but things are a bit different now than they
were in the olden days. To keep track of the number of parameters you
need to pass a pointer to a count variable as third parameter. At your
option, you could also ignore the count and pass |NULL| instead. We show
both possibilities here:

int myintarray\[2\]; module_\*-\*-\*_param_\*-\*-\*_array(myintarray,
int, NULL, 0); /\* not interested in count \*/

short myshortarray\[4\]; int count;
module_\*-\*-\*_param_\*-\*-\*_array(myshortarray, short, &count, 0);
/\* put count into "count" variable \*/

A good use for this is to have the module variable’s default values set,
like a port or IO address. If the variables contain the default values,
then perform autodetection (explained elsewhere). Otherwise, keep the
current value. This will be made clear later on.

Lastly, there is a macro function,
|MODULE_\*-\*-\*_PARM_\*-\*-\*_DESC()|, that is used to document
arguments that the module can take. It takes two parameters: a variable
name and a free form string describing that variable.

It is recommended to experiment with the following code:

    $ sudo insmod hello-5.ko mystring="bebop" myintarray=-1
    $ sudo dmesg -t | tail -7
    myshort is a short integer: 1
    myint is an integer: 420
    mylong is a long integer: 9999
    mystring is a string: bebop
    myintarray[0] = -1
    myintarray[1] = 420
    got 1 arguments for myintarray.

    $ sudo rmmod hello-5
    $ sudo dmesg -t | tail -1
    Goodbye, world 5

    $ sudo insmod hello-5.ko mystring="supercalifragilisticexpialidocious" myintarray=-1,-1
    $ sudo dmesg -t | tail -7
    myshort is a short integer: 1
    myint is an integer: 420
    mylong is a long integer: 9999
    mystring is a string: supercalifragilisticexpialidocious
    myintarray[0] = -1
    myintarray[1] = -1
    got 2 arguments for myintarray.

    $ sudo rmmod hello-5
    $ sudo dmesg -t | tail -1
    Goodbye, world 5

    $ sudo insmod hello-5.ko mylong=hello
    insmod: ERROR: could not insert module hello-5.ko: Invalid parameters

Modules Spanning Multiple Files
-------------------------------

Sometimes it makes sense to divide a kernel module between several
source files.

Here is an example of such a kernel module.

The next file:

And finally, the makefile:

This is the complete makefile for all the examples we have seen so far.
The first five lines are nothing special, but for the last example we
will need two lines. First we invent an object name for our combined
module, second we tell |make| what object files are part of that module.

Building modules for a precompiled kernel
-----------------------------------------

Obviously, we strongly suggest you to recompile your kernel, so that you
can enable a number of useful debugging features, such as forced module
unloading (|MODULE_\*-\*-\*_FORCE_\*-\*-\*_UNLOAD|): when this option is
enabled, you can force the kernel to unload a module even when it
believes it is unsafe, via a |sudo rmmod -f module| command. This option
can save you a lot of time and a number of reboots during the
development of a module. If you do not want to recompile your kernel
then you should consider running the examples within a test distribution
on a virtual machine. If you mess anything up then you can easily reboot
or restore the virtual machine (VM).

There are a number of cases in which you may want to load your module
into a precompiled running kernel, such as the ones shipped with common
Linux distributions, or a kernel you have compiled in the past. In
certain circumstances you could require to compile and insert a module
into a running kernel which you are not allowed to recompile, or on a
machine that you prefer not to reboot. If you can’t think of a case that
will force you to use modules for a precompiled kernel you might want to
skip this and treat the rest of this chapter as a big footnote.

Now, if you just install a kernel source tree, use it to compile your
kernel module and you try to insert your module into the kernel, in most
cases you would obtain an error as follows:

    insmod: ERROR: could not insert module poet.ko: Invalid module format

Less cryptic information is logged to the systemd journal:

    kernel: poet: disagrees about version of symbol module_*-*-*_layout

In other words, your kernel refuses to accept your module because
version strings (more precisely, *version magic*, see
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/include/linux/vermagic.h))
do not match. Incidentally, version magic strings are stored in the
module object in the form of a static string, starting with |vermagic:|.
Version data are inserted in your module when it is linked against the
`kernel/module.o` file. To inspect version magics and other strings
stored in a given module, issue the command |modinfo module.ko|:

    $ modinfo hello-4.ko
    description:    A sample driver
    author:         LKMPG
    license:        GPL
    srcversion:     B2AA7FBFCC2C39AED665382
    depends:
    retpoline:      Y
    name:           hello_*-*-*_4
    vermagic:       5.4.0-70-generic SMP mod_*-*-*_unload modversions

To overcome this problem we could resort to the `--force-vermagic`
option, but this solution is potentially unsafe, and unquestionably
unacceptable in production modules. Consequently, we want to compile our
module in an environment which was identical to the one in which our
precompiled kernel was built. How to do this, is the subject of the
remainder of this chapter.

First of all, make sure that a kernel source tree is available, having
exactly the same version as your current kernel. Then, find the
configuration file which was used to compile your precompiled kernel.
Usually, this is available in your current `boot` directory, under a
name like `config-5.14.x`. You may just want to copy it to your kernel
source tree: |cp /boot/config-‘uname -r‘ .config|.

Let’s focus again on the previous error message: a closer look at the
version magic strings suggests that, even with two configuration files
which are exactly the same, a slight difference in the version magic
could be possible, and it is sufficient to prevent insertion of the
module into the kernel. That slight difference, namely the custom string
which appears in the module’s version magic and not in the kernel’s one,
is due to a modification with respect to the original, in the makefile
that some distributions include. Then, examine your `Makefile`, and make
sure that the specified version information matches exactly the one used
for your current kernel. For example, your makefile could start as
follows:

    VERSION = 5
    PATCHLEVEL = 14
    SUBLEVEL = 0
    EXTRAVERSION = -rc2

In this case, you need to restore the value of symbol **EXTRAVERSION**
to **-rc2**. We suggest keeping a backup copy of the makefile used to
compile your kernel available in `/lib/modules/5.14.0-rc2/build`. A
simple command as following should suffice.

cp /lib/modules/‘uname -r‘/build/Makefile linux-‘uname -r‘

Here |linux-‘uname -r‘| is the Linux kernel source you are attempting to
build.

Now, please run |make| to update configuration and version headers and
objects:

    $ make
      SYNC    include/config/auto.conf.cmd
      HOSTCC  scripts/basic/fixdep
      HOSTCC  scripts/kconfig/conf.o
      HOSTCC  scripts/kconfig/confdata.o
      HOSTCC  scripts/kconfig/expr.o
      LEX     scripts/kconfig/lexer.lex.c
      YACC    scripts/kconfig/parser.tab.[ch]
      HOSTCC  scripts/kconfig/preprocess.o
      HOSTCC  scripts/kconfig/symbol.o
      HOSTCC  scripts/kconfig/util.o
      HOSTCC  scripts/kconfig/lexer.lex.o
      HOSTCC  scripts/kconfig/parser.tab.o
      HOSTLD  scripts/kconfig/conf

If you do not desire to actually compile the kernel, you can interrupt
the build process (CTRL-C) just after the SPLIT line, because at that
time, the files you need are ready. Now you can turn back to the
directory of your module and compile it: It will be built exactly
according to your current kernel settings, and it will load into it
without any errors.

Preliminaries
=============

How modules begin and end
-------------------------

A typical program starts with a |main()| function, executes a series of
instructions, and terminates after completing these instructions. Kernel
modules, however, follow a different pattern. A module always begins
with either the |init_\*-\*-\*_module| function or a function designated
by the |module_\*-\*-\*_init| call. This function acts as the module’s
entry point, informing the kernel of the module’s functionalities and
preparing the kernel to utilize the module’s functions when necessary.
After performing these tasks, the entry function returns, and the module
remains inactive until the kernel requires its code.

All modules conclude by invoking either |cleanup_\*-\*-\*_module| or a
function specified through the |module_\*-\*-\*_exit| call. This serves
as the module’s exit function, reversing the actions of the entry
function by unregistering the previously registered functionalities.

It is mandatory for every module to have both an entry and an exit
function. While there are multiple methods to define these functions,
the terms “entry function” and “exit function” are generally used.
However, they may occasionally be referred to as |init_\*-\*-\*_module|
and |cleanup_\*-\*-\*_module|, which are understood to mean the same.

Functions available to modules
------------------------------

Programmers use functions they do not define all the time. A prime
example of this is |printf()|. You use these library functions which are
provided by the standard C library, libc. The definitions for these
functions do not actually enter your program until the linking stage,
which ensures that the code (for |printf()| for example) is available,
and fixes the call instruction to point to that code.

Kernel modules are different here, too. In the hello world example, you
might have noticed that we used a function, |pr_\*-\*-\*_info()| but did
not include a standard I/O library. That is because modules are object
files whose symbols get resolved upon running |insmod| or |modprobe|.
The definition for the symbols comes from the kernel itself; the only
external functions you can use are the ones provided by the kernel. If
you’re curious about what symbols have been exported by your kernel,
take a look at `/proc/kallsyms`.

One point to keep in mind is the difference between library functions
and system calls. Library functions are higher level, run completely in
user space and provide a more convenient interface for the programmer to
the functions that do the real work — system calls. System calls run in
kernel mode on the user’s behalf and are provided by the kernel itself.
The library function |printf()| may look like a very general printing
function, but all it really does is format the data into strings and
write the string data using the low-level system call |write()|, which
then sends the data to standard output.

Would you like to see what system calls are made by |printf()|? It is
easy_ Compile the following program:

\#include &lt;stdio.h&gt;

int main(void) printf("hello"); return 0;

with |gcc -Wall -o hello hello.c|. Run the executable with |strace
./hello|. Are you impressed? Every line you see corresponds to a system
call. [strace](https://strace.io/) is a handy program that gives you
details about what system calls a program is making, including which
call is made, what its arguments are and what it returns. It is an
invaluable tool for figuring out things like what files a program is
trying to access. Towards the end, you will see a line which looks like
|write(1, "hello", 5hello)|. There it is. The face behind the |printf()|
mask. You may not be familiar with write, since most people use library
functions for file I/O (like |fopen|, |fputs|, |fclose|). If that is the
case, try looking at man 2 write. The 2nd man section is devoted to
system calls (like |kill()| and |read()|). The 3rd man section is
devoted to library calls, which you would probably be more familiar with
(like |cosh()| and |random()|).

You can even write modules to replace the kernel’s system calls, which
we will do shortly. Crackers often make use of this sort of thing for
backdoors or trojans, but you can write your own modules to do more
benign things, like have the kernel write Tee hee, that tickles_ every
time someone tries to delete a file on your system.

User Space vs Kernel Space
--------------------------

The kernel primarily manages access to resources, be it a video card,
hard drive, or memory. Programs frequently vie for the same resources.
For instance, as a document is saved, updatedb might commence updating
the locate database. Sessions in editors like vim and processes like
updatedb can simultaneously utilize the hard drive. The kernel’s role is
to maintain order, ensuring that users do not access resources
indiscriminately.

To manage this, CPUs operate in different modes, each offering varying
levels of system control. The Intel 80386 architecture, for example,
featured four such modes, known as rings. Unix, however, utilizes only
two of these rings: the highest ring (ring 0, also known as “supervisor
mode”, where all actions are permissible) and the lowest ring, referred
to as “user mode”.

Recall the discussion about library functions vs system calls.
Typically, you use a library function in user mode. The library function
calls one or more system calls, and these system calls execute on the
library function’s behalf, but do so in supervisor mode since they are
part of the kernel itself. Once the system call completes its task, it
returns and execution gets transferred back to user mode.

Name Space
----------

When you write a small C program, you use variables which are convenient
and make sense to the reader. If, on the other hand, you are writing
routines which will be part of a bigger problem, any global variables
you have are part of a community of other peoples’ global variables;
some of the variable names can clash. When a program has lots of global
variables which aren’t meaningful enough to be distinguished, you get
namespace pollution. In large projects, effort must be made to remember
reserved names, and to find ways to develop a scheme for naming unique
variable names and symbols.

When writing kernel code, even the smallest module will be linked
against the entire kernel, so this is definitely an issue. The best way
to deal with this is to declare all your variables as static and to use
a well-defined prefix for your symbols. By convention, all kernel
prefixes are lowercase. If you do not want to declare everything as
static, another option is to declare a symbol table and register it with
the kernel. We will get to this later.

The file `/proc/kallsyms` holds all the symbols that the kernel knows
about and which are therefore accessible to your modules since they
share the kernel’s codespace.

Code space
----------

Memory management is a very complicated subject and the majority of
O’Reilly’s [Understanding The Linux
Kernel](https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/understanding-the-linux/0596005652/)
exclusively covers memory management_ We are not setting out to be
experts on memory managements, but we do need to know a couple of facts
to even begin worrying about writing real modules.

If you have not thought about what a segfault really means, you may be
surprised to hear that pointers do not actually point to memory
locations. Not real ones, anyway. When a process is created, the kernel
sets aside a portion of real physical memory and hands it to the process
to use for its executing code, variables, stack, heap and other things
which a computer scientist would know about. This memory begins with
0x00000000 and extends up to whatever it needs to be. Since the memory
space for any two processes do not overlap, every process that can
access a memory address, say 0xbffff978, would be accessing a different
location in real physical memory_ The processes would be accessing an
index named 0xbffff978 which points to some kind of offset into the
region of memory set aside for that particular process. For the most
part, a process like our Hello, World program can’t access the space of
another process, although there are ways which we will talk about later.

The kernel has its own space of memory as well. Since a module is code
which can be dynamically inserted and removed in the kernel (as opposed
to a semi-autonomous object), it shares the kernel’s codespace rather
than having its own. Therefore, if your module segfaults, the kernel
segfaults. And if you start writing over data because of an off-by-one
error, then you’re trampling on kernel data (or code). This is even
worse than it sounds, so try your best to be careful.

It should be noted that the aforementioned discussion applies to any
operating system utilizing a monolithic kernel. This concept differs
slightly from *“building all your modules into the kernel”*, although
the underlying principle is similar. In contrast, there are
microkernels, where modules are allocated their own code space. Two
notable examples of microkernels include the [GNU
Hurd](https://www.gnu.org/software/hurd/) and the [Zircon
kernel](https://fuchsia.dev/fuchsia-src/concepts/kernel) of Google’s
Fuchsia.

Device Drivers
--------------

One class of module is the device driver, which provides functionality
for hardware like a serial port. On Unix, each piece of hardware is
represented by a file located in `/dev` named a device file which
provides the means to communicate with the hardware. The device driver
provides the communication on behalf of a user program. So the es1370.ko
sound card device driver might connect the `/dev/sound` device file to
the Ensoniq IS1370 sound card. A userspace program like mp3blaster can
use `/dev/sound` without ever knowing what kind of sound card is
installed.

Let’s look at some device files. Here are device files which represent
the first three partitions on the primary master IDE hard drive:

    $ ls -l /dev/hda[1-3]
    brw-rw----  1 root  disk  3, 1 Jul  5  2000 /dev/hda1
    brw-rw----  1 root  disk  3, 2 Jul  5  2000 /dev/hda2
    brw-rw----  1 root  disk  3, 3 Jul  5  2000 /dev/hda3

Notice the column of numbers separated by a comma. The first number is
called the device’s major number. The second number is the minor number.
The major number tells you which driver is used to access the hardware.
Each driver is assigned a unique major number; all device files with the
same major number are controlled by the same driver. All the above major
numbers are 3, because they’re all controlled by the same driver.

The minor number is used by the driver to distinguish between the
various hardware it controls. Returning to the example above, although
all three devices are handled by the same driver they have unique minor
numbers because the driver sees them as being different pieces of
hardware.

Devices are divided into two types: character devices and block devices.
The difference is that block devices have a buffer for requests, so they
can choose the best order in which to respond to the requests. This is
important in the case of storage devices, where it is faster to read or
write sectors which are close to each other, rather than those which are
further apart. Another difference is that block devices can only accept
input and return output in blocks (whose size can vary according to the
device), whereas character devices are allowed to use as many or as few
bytes as they like. Most devices in the world are character, because
they don’t need this type of buffering, and they don’t operate with a
fixed block size. You can tell whether a device file is for a block
device or a character device by looking at the first character in the
output of |ls -l|. If it is ‘b’ then it is a block device, and if it is
‘c’ then it is a character device. The devices you see above are block
devices. Here are some character devices (the serial ports):

    crw-rw----  1 root  dial 4, 64 Feb 18 23:34 /dev/ttyS0
    crw-r-----  1 root  dial 4, 65 Nov 17 10:26 /dev/ttyS1
    crw-rw----  1 root  dial 4, 66 Jul  5  2000 /dev/ttyS2
    crw-rw----  1 root  dial 4, 67 Jul  5  2000 /dev/ttyS3

If you want to see which major numbers have been assigned, you can look
at
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/Documentation/admin-guide/devices.txt).

When the system was installed, all of those device files were created by
the |mknod| command. To create a new char device named `coffee` with
major/minor number 12 and 2, simply do |mknod /dev/coffee c 12 2|. You
do not have to put your device files into `/dev`, but it is done by
convention. Linus put his device files in `/dev`, and so should you.
However, when creating a device file for testing purposes, it is
probably OK to place it in your working directory where you compile the
kernel module. Just be sure to put it in the right place when you’re
done writing the device driver.

A few final points, although implicit in the previous discussion, are
worth stating explicitly for clarity. When a device file is accessed,
the kernel utilizes the file’s major number to identify the appropriate
driver for handling the access. This indicates that the kernel does not
necessarily rely on or need to be aware of the minor number. It is the
driver that concerns itself with the minor number, using it to
differentiate between various pieces of hardware.

It is important to note that when referring to *“hardware”*, the term is
used in a slightly more abstract sense than just a physical PCI card
that can be held in hand. Consider the following two device files:

    $ ls -l /dev/sda /dev/sdb
    brw-rw---- 1 root disk 8,  0 Jan  3 09:02 /dev/sda
    brw-rw---- 1 root disk 8, 16 Jan  3 09:02 /dev/sdb

By now you can look at these two device files and know instantly that
they are block devices and are handled by same driver (block major 8).
Sometimes two device files with the same major but different minor
number can actually represent the same piece of physical hardware. So
just be aware that the word “hardware” in our discussion can mean
something very abstract.

Character Device drivers
========================

The file-\*-\*_operations Structure
-----------------------------------

The |file_\*-\*-\*_operations| structure is defined in
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/include/linux/fs.h),
and holds pointers to functions defined by the driver that perform
various operations on the device. Each field of the structure
corresponds to the address of some function defined by the driver to
handle a requested operation.

For example, every character driver needs to define a function that
reads from the device. The |file_\*-\*-\*_operations| structure holds
the address of the module’s function that performs that operation. Here
is what the definition looks like for kernel 5.4:

struct file_\*-\*-\*_operations struct module \*owner; loff_\*-\*-\*_t
(\*llseek) (struct file \*, loff_\*-\*-\*_t, int); ssize_\*-\*-\*_t
(\*read) (struct file \*, char _\*-\*-\*_\*-\*-\*_user \*,
size_\*-\*-\*_t, loff_\*-\*-\*_t \*); ssize_\*-\*-\*_t (\*write) (struct
file \*, const char _\*-\*-\*_\*-\*-\*_user \*, size_\*-\*-\*_t,
loff_\*-\*-\*_t \*); ssize_\*-\*-\*_t (\*read_\*-\*-\*_iter) (struct
kiocb \*, struct iov_\*-\*-\*_iter \*); ssize_\*-\*-\*_t
(\*write_\*-\*-\*_iter) (struct kiocb \*, struct iov_\*-\*-\*_iter \*);
int (\*iopoll)(struct kiocb \*kiocb, bool spin); int (\*iterate) (struct
file \*, struct dir_\*-\*-\*_context \*); int
(\*iterate_\*-\*-\*_shared) (struct file \*, struct dir_\*-\*-\*_context
\*); _\*-\*-\*_\*-\*-\*_poll_\*-\*-\*_t (\*poll) (struct file \*,
struct poll_\*-\*-\*_table_\*-\*-\*_struct \*); long
(\*unlocked_\*-\*-\*_ioctl) (struct file \*, unsigned int, unsigned
long); long (\*compat_\*-\*-\*_ioctl) (struct file \*, unsigned int,
unsigned long); int (\*mmap) (struct file \*, struct
vm_\*-\*-\*_area_\*-\*-\*_struct \*); unsigned long
mmap_\*-\*-\*_supported_\*-\*-\*_flags; int (\*open) (struct inode \*,
struct file \*); int (\*flush) (struct file \*,
fl_\*-\*-\*_owner_\*-\*-\*_t id); int (\*release) (struct inode \*,
struct file \*); int (\*fsync) (struct file \*, loff_\*-\*-\*_t,
loff_\*-\*-\*_t, int datasync); int (\*fasync) (int, struct file \*,
int); int (\*lock) (struct file \*, int, struct file_\*-\*-\*_lock \*);
ssize_\*-\*-\*_t (\*sendpage) (struct file \*, struct page \*, int,
size_\*-\*-\*_t, loff_\*-\*-\*_t \*, int); unsigned long
(\*get_\*-\*-\*_unmapped_\*-\*-\*_area)(struct file \*, unsigned long,
unsigned long, unsigned long, unsigned long); int
(\*check_\*-\*-\*_flags)(int); int (\*flock) (struct file \*, int,
struct file_\*-\*-\*_lock \*); ssize_\*-\*-\*_t
(\*splice_\*-\*-\*_write)(struct pipe_\*-\*-\*_inode_\*-\*-\*_info \*,
struct file \*, loff_\*-\*-\*_t \*, size_\*-\*-\*_t, unsigned int);
ssize_\*-\*-\*_t (\*splice_\*-\*-\*_read)(struct file \*,
loff_\*-\*-\*_t \*, struct pipe_\*-\*-\*_inode_\*-\*-\*_info \*,
size_\*-\*-\*_t, unsigned int); int (\*setlease)(struct file \*, long,
struct file_\*-\*-\*_lock \*\*, void \*\*); long (\*fallocate)(struct
file \*file, int mode, loff_\*-\*-\*_t offset, loff_\*-\*-\*_t len);
void (\*show_\*-\*-\*_fdinfo)(struct seq_\*-\*-\*_file \*m, struct file
\*f); ssize_\*-\*-\*_t (\*copy_\*-\*-\*_file_\*-\*-\*_range)(struct file
\*, loff_\*-\*-\*_t, struct file \*, loff_\*-\*-\*_t, size_\*-\*-\*_t,
unsigned int); loff_\*-\*-\*_t
(\*remap_\*-\*-\*_file_\*-\*-\*_range)(struct file \*file_\*-\*-\*_in,
loff_\*-\*-\*_t pos_\*-\*-\*_in, struct file \*file_\*-\*-\*_out,
loff_\*-\*-\*_t pos_\*-\*-\*_out, loff_\*-\*-\*_t len, unsigned int
remap_\*-\*-\*_flags); int (\*fadvise)(struct file \*, loff_\*-\*-\*_t,
loff_\*-\*-\*_t, int); _\*-\*-\*_\*-\*-\*_randomize_\*-\*-\*_layout;

Some operations are not implemented by a driver. For example, a driver
that handles a video card will not need to read from a directory
structure. The corresponding entries in the |file_\*-\*-\*_operations|
structure should be set to |NULL|.

There is a gcc extension that makes assigning to this structure more
convenient. You will see it in modern drivers, and may catch you by
surprise. This is what the new way of assigning to the structure looks
like:

struct file_\*-\*-\*_operations fops = read: device_\*-\*-\*_read,
write: device_\*-\*-\*_write, open: device_\*-\*-\*_open, release:
device_\*-\*-\*_release ;

However, there is also a C99 way of assigning to elements of a
structure, [designated
initializers](https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc/Designated-Inits.html),
and this is definitely preferred over using the GNU extension. You
should use this syntax in case someone wants to port your driver. It
will help with compatibility:

struct file_\*-\*-\*_operations fops = .read = device_\*-\*-\*_read,
.write = device_\*-\*-\*_write, .open = device_\*-\*-\*_open, .release =
device_\*-\*-\*_release ;

The meaning is clear, and you should be aware that any member of the
structure which you do not explicitly assign will be initialized to
|NULL| by gcc.

An instance of |struct file_\*-\*-\*_operations| containing pointers to
functions that are used to implement |read|, |write|, |open|, … system
calls is commonly named |fops|.

Since Linux v3.14, the read, write and seek operations are guaranteed
for thread-safe by using the |f_\*-\*-\*_pos| specific lock, which makes
the file position update to become the mutual exclusion. So, we can
safely implement those operations without unnecessary locking.

Additionally, since Linux v5.6, the |proc_\*-\*-\*_ops| structure was
introduced to replace the use of the |file_\*-\*-\*_operations|
structure when registering proc handlers. See more information in the
<a href="#sec:proc_*-*-*_ops" data-reference-type="ref" data-reference="sec:proc_*-*-*_ops">7.1</a>
section.

The file structure
------------------

Each device is represented in the kernel by a file structure, which is
defined in
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/include/linux/fs.h).
Be aware that a file is a kernel level structure and never appears in a
user space program. It is not the same thing as a |FILE|, which is
defined by glibc and would never appear in a kernel space function.
Also, its name is a bit misleading; it represents an abstract open
‘file’, not a file on a disk, which is represented by a structure named
|inode|.

An instance of struct file is commonly named |filp|. You’ll also see it
referred to as a struct file object. Resist the temptation.

Go ahead and look at the definition of file. Most of the entries you
see, like struct dentry are not used by device drivers, and you can
ignore them. This is because drivers do not fill file directly; they
only use structures contained in file which are created elsewhere.

Registering A Device
--------------------

As discussed earlier, char devices are accessed through device files,
usually located in `/dev`. This is by convention. When writing a driver,
it is OK to put the device file in your current directory. Just make
sure you place it in `/dev` for a production driver. The major number
tells you which driver handles which device file. The minor number is
used only by the driver itself to differentiate which device it is
operating on, just in case the driver handles more than one device.

Adding a driver to your system means registering it with the kernel.
This is synonymous with assigning it a major number during the module’s
initialization. You do this by using the |register_\*-\*-\*_chrdev|
function, defined by
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/include/linux/fs.h).

int register_\*-\*-\*_chrdev(unsigned int major, const char \*name,
struct file_\*-\*-\*_operations \*fops);

Where unsigned int major is the major number you want to request, |const
char \*name| is the name of the device as it will appear in
`/proc/devices` and |struct file_\*-\*-\*_operations \*fops| is a
pointer to the |file_\*-\*-\*_operations| table for your driver. A
negative return value means the registration failed. Note that we didn’t
pass the minor number to |register_\*-\*-\*_chrdev|. That is because the
kernel doesn’t care about the minor number; only our driver uses it.

Now the question is, how do you get a major number without hijacking one
that’s already in use? The easiest way would be to look through
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/Documentation/admin-guide/devices.txt)
and pick an unused one. That is a bad way of doing things because you
will never be sure if the number you picked will be assigned later. The
answer is that you can ask the kernel to assign you a dynamic major
number.

If you pass a major number of 0 to |register_\*-\*-\*_chrdev|, the
return value will be the dynamically allocated major number. The
downside is that you can not make a device file in advance, since you do
not know what the major number will be. There are a couple of ways to do
this. First, the driver itself can print the newly assigned number and
we can make the device file by hand. Second, the newly registered device
will have an entry in `/proc/devices`, and we can either make the device
file by hand or write a shell script to read the file in and make the
device file. The third method is that we can have our driver make the
device file using the |device_\*-\*-\*_create| function after a
successful registration and |device_\*-\*-\*_destroy| during the call to
|cleanup_\*-\*-\*_module|.

However, |register_\*-\*-\*_chrdev()| would occupy a range of minor
numbers associated with the given major. The recommended way to reduce
waste for char device registration is using cdev interface.

The newer interface completes the char device registration in two
distinct steps. First, we should register a range of device numbers,
which can be completed with |register_\*-\*-\*_chrdev_\*-\*-\*_region|
or |alloc_\*-\*-\*_chrdev_\*-\*-\*_region|.

int register_\*-\*-\*_chrdev_\*-\*-\*_region(dev_\*-\*-\*_t from,
unsigned count, const char \*name); int
alloc_\*-\*-\*_chrdev_\*-\*-\*_region(dev_\*-\*-\*_t \*dev, unsigned
baseminor, unsigned count, const char \*name);

The choice between two different functions depends on whether you know
the major numbers for your device. Using
|register_\*-\*-\*_chrdev_\*-\*-\*_region| if you know the device major
number and |alloc_\*-\*-\*_chrdev_\*-\*-\*_region| if you would like to
allocate a dynamically-allocated major number.

Second, we should initialize the data structure |struct cdev| for our
char device and associate it with the device numbers. To initialize the
|struct cdev|, we can achieve by the similar sequence of the following
codes.

struct cdev \*my_\*-\*-\*_dev = cdev_\*-\*-\*_alloc();
my_\*-\*-\*_cdev-&gt;ops = &my_\*-\*-\*_fops;

However, the common usage pattern will embed the |struct cdev| within a
device-specific structure of your own. In this case, we’ll need
|cdev_\*-\*-\*_init| for the initialization.

void cdev_\*-\*-\*_init(struct cdev \*cdev, const struct
file_\*-\*-\*_operations \*fops);

Once we finish the initialization, we can add the char device to the
system by using the |cdev_\*-\*-\*_add|.

int cdev_\*-\*-\*_add(struct cdev \*p, dev_\*-\*-\*_t dev, unsigned
count);

To find an example using the interface, you can see `ioctl.c` described
in section
<a href="#sec:device_*-*-*_files" data-reference-type="ref" data-reference="sec:device_*-*-*_files">9</a>.

Unregistering A Device
----------------------

We can not allow the kernel module to be |rmmod|’ed whenever root feels
like it. If the device file is opened by a process and then we remove
the kernel module, using the file would cause a call to the memory
location where the appropriate function (read/write) used to be. If we
are lucky, no other code was loaded there, and we’ll get an ugly error
message. If we are unlucky, another kernel module was loaded into the
same location, which means a jump into the middle of another function
within the kernel. The results of this would be impossible to predict,
but they can not be very positive.

Normally, when you do not want to allow something, you return an error
code (a negative number) from the function which is supposed to do it.
With |cleanup_\*-\*-\*_module| that’s impossible because it is a void
function. However, there is a counter which keeps track of how many
processes are using your module. You can see what its value is by
looking at the 3rd field with the command |cat /proc/modules| or |sudo
lsmod|. If this number isn’t zero, |rmmod| will fail. Note that you do
not have to check the counter within |cleanup_\*-\*-\*_module| because
the check will be performed for you by the system call
|sys_\*-\*-\*_delete_\*-\*-\*_module|, defined in
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/include/linux/syscalls.h).
You should not use this counter directly, but there are functions
defined in
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/include/linux/module.h)
which let you increase, decrease and display this counter:

-   |try_\*-\*-\*_module_\*-\*-\*_get(THIS_\*-\*-\*_MODULE)|: Increment
    the reference count of current module.

-   |module_\*-\*-\*_put(THIS_\*-\*-\*_MODULE)|: Decrement the reference
    count of current module.

-   |module_\*-\*-\*_refcount(THIS_\*-\*-\*_MODULE)|: Return the value
    of reference count of current module.

It is important to keep the counter accurate; if you ever do lose track
of the correct usage count, you will never be able to unload the module;
it’s now reboot time, boys and girls. This is bound to happen to you
sooner or later during a module’s development.

chardev.c
---------

The next code sample creates a char driver named `chardev`. You can dump
its device file.

cat /proc/devices

(or open the file with a program) and the driver will put the number of
times the device file has been read from into the file. We do not
support writing to the file (like |echo "hi" &gt; /dev/hello|), but
catch these attempts and tell the user that the operation is not
supported. Don’t worry if you don’t see what we do with the data we read
into the buffer; we don’t do much with it. We simply read in the data
and print a message acknowledging that we received it.

In the multiple-threaded environment, without any protection, concurrent
access to the same memory may lead to the race condition, and will not
preserve the performance. In the kernel module, this problem may happen
due to multiple instances accessing the shared resources. Therefore, a
solution is to enforce the exclusive access. We use atomic
Compare-And-Swap (CAS) to maintain the states,
|CDEV_\*-\*-\*_NOT_\*-\*-\*_USED| and
|CDEV_\*-\*-\*_EXCLUSIVE_\*-\*-\*_OPEN|, to determine whether the file
is currently opened by someone or not. CAS compares the contents of a
memory location with the expected value and, only if they are the same,
modifies the contents of that memory location to the desired value. See
more concurrency details in the
<a href="#sec:synchronization" data-reference-type="ref" data-reference="sec:synchronization">12</a>
section.

Writing Modules for Multiple Kernel Versions
--------------------------------------------

The system calls, which are the major interface the kernel shows to the
processes, generally stay the same across versions. A new system call
may be added, but usually the old ones will behave exactly like they
used to. This is necessary for backward compatibility – a new kernel
version is not supposed to break regular processes. In most cases, the
device files will also remain the same. On the other hand, the internal
interfaces within the kernel can and do change between versions.

There are differences between different kernel versions, and if you want
to support multiple kernel versions, you will find yourself having to
code conditional compilation directives. The way to do this to compare
the macro |LINUX_\*-\*-\*_VERSION_\*-\*-\*_CODE| to the macro
|KERNEL_\*-\*-\*_VERSION|. In version `a.b.c` of the kernel, the value
of this macro would be 2<sup>16</sup>*a* + 2<sup>8</sup>*b* + *c*.

The /proc File System
=====================

In Linux, there is an additional mechanism for the kernel and kernel
modules to send information to processes — the `/proc` file system.
Originally designed to allow easy access to information about processes
(hence the name), it is now used by every bit of the kernel which has
something interesting to report, such as `/proc/modules` which provides
the list of modules and `/proc/meminfo` which gathers memory usage
statistics.

The method to use the proc file system is very similar to the one used
with device drivers — a structure is created with all the information
needed for the `/proc` file, including pointers to any handler functions
(in our case there is only one, the one called when somebody attempts to
read from the `/proc` file). Then, |init_\*-\*-\*_module| registers the
structure with the kernel and |cleanup_\*-\*-\*_module| unregisters it.

Normal file systems are located on a disk, rather than just in memory
(which is where `/proc` is), and in that case the index-node (inode for
short) number is a pointer to a disk location where the file’s inode is
located. The inode contains information about the file, for example the
file’s permissions, together with a pointer to the disk location or
locations where the file’s data can be found.

Because we don’t get called when the file is opened or closed, there’s
nowhere for us to put |try_\*-\*-\*_module_\*-\*-\*_get| and
|module_\*-\*-\*_put| in this module, and if the file is opened and then
the module is removed, there’s no way to avoid the consequences.

Here a simple example showing how to use a `/proc` file. This is the
HelloWorld for the `/proc` filesystem. There are three parts: create the
file `/proc/helloworld` in the function |init_\*-\*-\*_module|, return a
value (and a buffer) when the file `/proc/helloworld` is read in the
callback function |procfile_\*-\*-\*_read|, and delete the file
`/proc/helloworld` in the function |cleanup_\*-\*-\*_module|.

The `/proc/helloworld` is created when the module is loaded with the
function |proc_\*-\*-\*_create|. The return value is a pointer to
|struct proc_\*-\*-\*_dir_\*-\*-\*_entry|, and it will be used to
configure the file `/proc/helloworld` (for example, the owner of this
file). A null return value means that the creation has failed.

Every time the file `/proc/helloworld` is read, the function
|procfile_\*-\*-\*_read| is called. Two parameters of this function are
very important: the buffer (the second parameter) and the offset (the
fourth one). The content of the buffer will be returned to the
application which read it (for example the |cat| command). The offset is
the current position in the file. If the return value of the function is
not null, then this function is called again. So be careful with this
function, if it never returns zero, the read function is called
endlessly.

    $ cat /proc/helloworld
    HelloWorld_

The proc-\*-\*_ops Structure
----------------------------

The |proc_\*-\*-\*_ops| structure is defined in
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/include/linux/proc\_*-*-*_fs.h)
in Linux v5.6+. In older kernels, it used |file_\*-\*-\*_operations| for
custom hooks in `/proc` file system, but it contains some members that
are unnecessary in VFS, and every time VFS expands
|file_\*-\*-\*_operations| set, `/proc` code comes bloated. On the other
hand, not only the space, but also some operations were saved by this
structure to improve its performance. For example, the file which never
disappears in `/proc` can set the |proc_\*-\*-\*_flag| as
|PROC_\*-\*-\*_ENTRY_\*-\*-\*_PERMANENT| to save 2 atomic ops, 1
allocation, 1 free in per open/read/close sequence.

Read and Write a /proc File
---------------------------

We have seen a very simple example for a `/proc` file where we only read
the file `/proc/helloworld`. It is also possible to write in a `/proc`
file. It works the same way as read, a function is called when the
`/proc` file is written. But there is a little difference with read,
data comes from user, so you have to import data from user space to
kernel space (with |copy_\*-\*-\*_from_\*-\*-\*_user| or
|get_\*-\*-\*_user|)

The reason for |copy_\*-\*-\*_from_\*-\*-\*_user| or |get_\*-\*-\*_user|
is that Linux memory (on Intel architecture, it may be different under
some other processors) is segmented. This means that a pointer, by
itself, does not reference a unique location in memory, only a location
in a memory segment, and you need to know which memory segment it is to
be able to use it. There is one memory segment for the kernel, and one
for each of the processes.

The only memory segment accessible to a process is its own, so when
writing regular programs to run as processes, there is no need to worry
about segments. When you write a kernel module, normally you want to
access the kernel memory segment, which is handled automatically by the
system. However, when the content of a memory buffer needs to be passed
between the currently running process and the kernel, the kernel
function receives a pointer to the memory buffer which is in the process
segment. The |put_\*-\*-\*_user| and |get_\*-\*-\*_user| macros allow
you to access that memory. These functions handle only one character,
you can handle several characters with |copy_\*-\*-\*_to_\*-\*-\*_user|
and |copy_\*-\*-\*_from_\*-\*-\*_user|. As the buffer (in read or write
function) is in kernel space, for write function you need to import data
because it comes from user space, but not for the read function because
data is already in kernel space.

Manage /proc file with standard filesystem
------------------------------------------

We have seen how to read and write a `/proc` file with the `/proc`
interface. But it is also possible to manage `/proc` file with inodes.
The main concern is to use advanced functions, like permissions.

In Linux, there is a standard mechanism for file system registration.
Since every file system has to have its own functions to handle inode
and file operations, there is a special structure to hold pointers to
all those functions, |struct inode_\*-\*-\*_operations|, which includes
a pointer to |struct proc_\*-\*-\*_ops|.

The difference between file and inode operations is that file operations
deal with the file itself whereas inode operations deal with ways of
referencing the file, such as creating links to it.

In `/proc`, whenever we register a new file, we’re allowed to specify
which |struct inode_\*-\*-\*_operations| will be used to access to it.
This is the mechanism we use, a |struct inode_\*-\*-\*_operations| which
includes a pointer to a |struct proc_\*-\*-\*_ops| which includes
pointers to our |procfs_\*-\*-\*_read| and |procfs_\*-\*-\*_write|
functions.

Another interesting point here is the |module_\*-\*-\*_permission|
function. This function is called whenever a process tries to do
something with the `/proc` file, and it can decide whether to allow
access or not. Right now it is only based on the operation and the uid
of the current user (as available in current, a pointer to a structure
which includes information on the currently running process), but it
could be based on anything we like, such as what other processes are
doing with the same file, the time of day, or the last input we
received.

It is important to note that the standard roles of read and write are
reversed in the kernel. Read functions are used for output, whereas
write functions are used for input. The reason for that is that read and
write refer to the user’s point of view — if a process reads something
from the kernel, then the kernel needs to output it, and if a process
writes something to the kernel, then the kernel receives it as input.

Still hungry for procfs examples? Well, first of all keep in mind, there
are rumors around, claiming that procfs is on its way out, consider
using `sysfs` instead. Consider using this mechanism, in case you want
to document something kernel related yourself.

Manage /proc file with seq-\*-\*_file
-------------------------------------

As we have seen, writing a `/proc` file may be quite “complex”. So to
help people writing `/proc` file, there is an API named
|seq_\*-\*-\*_file| that helps formatting a `/proc` file for output. It
is based on sequence, which is composed of 3 functions: |start()|,
|next()|, and |stop()|. The |seq_\*-\*-\*_file| API starts a sequence
when a user read the `/proc` file.

A sequence begins with the call of the function |start()|. If the return
is a non |NULL| value, the function |next()| is called; otherwise, the
|stop()| function is called directly. This function is an iterator, the
goal is to go through all the data. Each time |next()| is called, the
function |show()| is also called. It writes data values in the buffer
read by the user. The function |next()| is called until it returns
|NULL|. The sequence ends when |next()| returns |NULL|, then the
function |stop()| is called.

BE CAREFUL: when a sequence is finished, another one starts. That means
that at the end of function |stop()|, the function |start()| is called
again. This loop finishes when the function |start()| returns |NULL|.
You can see a scheme of this in the
Figure <a href="#img:seqfile" data-reference-type="ref" data-reference="img:seqfile">[img:seqfile]</a>.

The |seq_\*-\*-\*_file| provides basic functions for
|proc_\*-\*-\*_ops|, such as |seq_\*-\*-\*_read|, |seq_\*-\*-\*_lseek|,
and some others. But nothing to write in the `/proc` file. Of course,
you can still use the same way as in the previous example.

If you want more information, you can read this web page:

-   <https://lwn.net/Articles/22355/>

-   <https://kernelnewbies.org/Documents/SeqFileHowTo>

You can also read the code of
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/fs/seq\_*-*-*_file.c)
in the linux kernel.

sysfs: Interacting with your module
===================================

*sysfs* allows you to interact with the running kernel from userspace by
reading or setting variables inside of modules. This can be useful for
debugging purposes, or just as an interface for applications or scripts.
You can find sysfs directories and files under the `/sys` directory on
your system.

ls -l /sys

Attributes can be exported for kobjects in the form of regular files in
the filesystem. Sysfs forwards file I/O operations to methods defined
for the attributes, providing a means to read and write kernel
attributes.

An attribute definition in simply:

struct attribute char \*name; struct module \*owner; umode_\*-\*-\*_t
mode; ;

int sysfs_\*-\*-\*_create_\*-\*-\*_file(struct kobject \* kobj, const
struct attribute \* attr); void
sysfs_\*-\*-\*_remove_\*-\*-\*_file(struct kobject \* kobj, const struct
attribute \* attr);

For example, the driver model defines |struct device_\*-\*-\*_attribute|
like:

struct device_\*-\*-\*_attribute struct attribute attr; ssize_\*-\*-\*_t
(\*show)(struct device \*dev, struct device_\*-\*-\*_attribute \*attr,
char \*buf); ssize_\*-\*-\*_t (\*store)(struct device \*dev, struct
device_\*-\*-\*_attribute \*attr, const char \*buf, size_\*-\*-\*_t
count); ;

int device_\*-\*-\*_create_\*-\*-\*_file(struct device \*, const struct
device_\*-\*-\*_attribute \*); void
device_\*-\*-\*_remove_\*-\*-\*_file(struct device \*, const struct
device_\*-\*-\*_attribute \*);

To read or write attributes, |show()| or |store()| method must be
specified when declaring the attribute. For the common cases
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/include/linux/sysfs.h)
provides convenience macros (|_\*-\*-\*_\*-\*-\*_ATTR|,
|_\*-\*-\*_\*-\*-\*_ATTR_\*-\*-\*_RO|,
|_\*-\*-\*_\*-\*-\*_ATTR_\*-\*-\*_WO|, etc.) to make defining
attributes easier as well as making code more concise and readable.

An example of a hello world module which includes the creation of a
variable accessible via sysfs is given below.

Make and install the module:

make sudo insmod hello-sysfs.ko

Check that it exists:

sudo lsmod | grep hello_\*-\*-\*_sysfs

What is the current value of |myvariable| ?

sudo cat /sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable

Set the value of |myvariable| and check that it changed.

echo "32" | sudo tee /sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable sudo cat
/sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable

Finally, remove the test module:

sudo rmmod hello_\*-\*-\*_sysfs

In the above case, we use a simple kobject to create a directory under
sysfs, and communicate with its attributes. Since Linux v2.6.0, the
|kobject| structure made its appearance. It was initially meant as a
simple way of unifying kernel code which manages reference counted
objects. After a bit of mission creep, it is now the glue that holds
much of the device model and its sysfs interface together. For more
information about kobject and sysfs, see
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/Documentation/driver-api/driver-model/driver.rst)
and <https://lwn.net/Articles/51437/>.

Talking To Device Files
=======================

Device files are supposed to represent physical devices. Most physical
devices are used for output as well as input, so there has to be some
mechanism for device drivers in the kernel to get the output to send to
the device from processes. This is done by opening the device file for
output and writing to it, just like writing to a file. In the following
example, this is implemented by |device_\*-\*-\*_write|.

This is not always enough. Imagine you had a serial port connected to a
modem (even if you have an internal modem, it is still implemented from
the CPU’s perspective as a serial port connected to a modem, so you
don’t have to tax your imagination too hard). The natural thing to do
would be to use the device file to write things to the modem (either
modem commands or data to be sent through the phone line) and read
things from the modem (either responses for commands or the data
received through the phone line). However, this leaves open the question
of what to do when you need to talk to the serial port itself, for
example to configure the rate at which data is sent and received.

The answer in Unix is to use a special function called |ioctl| (short
for Input Output ConTroL). Every device can have its own |ioctl|
commands, which can be read ioctl’s (to send information from a process
to the kernel), write ioctl’s (to return information to a process), both
or neither. Notice here the roles of read and write are reversed again,
so in ioctl’s read is to send information to the kernel and write is to
receive information from the kernel.

The ioctl function is called with three parameters: the file descriptor
of the appropriate device file, the ioctl number, and a parameter, which
is of type long so you can use a cast to use it to pass anything. You
will not be able to pass a structure this way, but you will be able to
pass a pointer to the structure. Here is an example:

You can see there is an argument called |cmd| in
|test_\*-\*-\*_ioctl_\*-\*-\*_ioctl()| function. It is the ioctl number.
The ioctl number encodes the major device number, the type of the ioctl,
the command, and the type of the parameter. This ioctl number is usually
created by a macro call (|_\*-\*-\*_IO|, |_\*-\*-\*_IOR|,
|_\*-\*-\*_IOW| or |_\*-\*-\*_IOWR| — depending on the type) in a header
file. This header file should then be included both by the programs
which will use ioctl (so they can generate the appropriate ioctl’s) and
by the kernel module (so it can understand it). In the example below,
the header file is `chardev.h` and the program which uses it is
`userspace_*-*-*_ioctl.c`.

If you want to use ioctls in your own kernel modules, it is best to
receive an official ioctl assignment, so if you accidentally get
somebody else’s ioctls, or if they get yours, you’ll know something is
wrong. For more information, consult the kernel source tree at
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/Documentation/userspace-api/ioctl/ioctl-number.rst).

Also, we need to be careful that concurrent access to the shared
resources will lead to the race condition. The solution is using atomic
Compare-And-Swap (CAS), which we mentioned at
<a href="#sec:chardev_*-*-*_c" data-reference-type="ref" data-reference="sec:chardev_*-*-*_c">6.5</a>
section, to enforce the exclusive access.

System Calls
============

So far, the only thing we’ve done was to use well defined kernel
mechanisms to register `/proc` files and device handlers. This is fine
if you want to do something the kernel programmers thought you’d want,
such as write a device driver. But what if you want to do something
unusual, to change the behavior of the system in some way? Then, you are
mostly on your own.

Should one choose not to use a virtual machine, kernel programming can
become risky. For example, while writing the code below, the |open()|
system call was inadvertently disrupted. This resulted in an inability
to open any files, run programs, or shut down the system, necessitating
a restart of the virtual machine. Fortunately, no critical files were
lost in this instance. However, if such modifications were made on a
live, mission-critical system, the consequences could be severe. To
mitigate the risk of file loss, even in a test environment, it is
advised to execute |sync| right before using |insmod| and |rmmod|.

Forget about `/proc` files, forget about device files. They are just
minor details. Minutiae in the vast expanse of the universe. The real
process to kernel communication mechanism, the one used by all
processes, is *system calls*. When a process requests a service from the
kernel (such as opening a file, forking to a new process, or requesting
more memory), this is the mechanism used. If you want to change the
behaviour of the kernel in interesting ways, this is the place to do it.
By the way, if you want to see which system calls a program uses, run
|strace &lt;arguments&gt;|.

In general, a process is not supposed to be able to access the kernel.
It can not access kernel memory and it can’t call kernel functions. The
hardware of the CPU enforces this (that is the reason why it is called
“protected mode” or “page protection”).

System calls are an exception to this general rule. What happens is that
the process fills the registers with the appropriate values and then
calls a special instruction which jumps to a previously defined location
in the kernel (of course, that location is readable by user processes,
it is not writable by them). Under Intel CPUs, this is done by means of
interrupt 0x80. The hardware knows that once you jump to this location,
you are no longer running in restricted user mode, but as the operating
system kernel — and therefore you’re allowed to do whatever you want.

The location in the kernel a process can jump to is called
`system_*-*-*_call`. The procedure at that location checks the system
call number, which tells the kernel what service the process requested.
Then, it looks at the table of system calls
(|sys_\*-\*-\*_call_\*-\*-\*_table|) to see the address of the kernel
function to call. Then it calls the function, and after it returns, does
a few system checks and then return back to the process (or to a
different process, if the process time ran out). If you want to read
this code, it is at the source file
`arch/$(architecture)/kernel/entry.S`, after the line
|ENTRY(system_\*-\*-\*_call)|.

So, if we want to change the way a certain system call works, what we
need to do is to write our own function to implement it (usually by
adding a bit of our own code, and then calling the original function)
and then change the pointer at |sys_\*-\*-\*_call_\*-\*-\*_table| to
point to our function. Because we might be removed later and we don’t
want to leave the system in an unstable state, it’s important for
|cleanup_\*-\*-\*_module| to restore the table to its original state.

To modify the content of |sys_\*-\*-\*_call_\*-\*-\*_table|, we need to
consider the control register. A control register is a processor
register that changes or controls the general behavior of the CPU. For
x86 architecture, the `cr0` register has various control flags that
modify the basic operation of the processor. The `WP` flag in `cr0`
stands for write protection. Once the `WP` flag is set, the processor
disallows further write attempts to the read-only sections Therefore, we
must disable the `WP` flag before modifying
|sys_\*-\*-\*_call_\*-\*-\*_table|. Since Linux v5.3, the
|write_\*-\*-\*_cr0| function cannot be used because of the sensitive
`cr0` bits pinned by the security issue, the attacker may write into CPU
control registers to disable CPU protections like write protection. As a
result, we have to provide the custom assembly routine to bypass it.

However, |sys_\*-\*-\*_call_\*-\*-\*_table| symbol is unexported to
prevent misuse. But there have few ways to get the symbol, manual symbol
lookup and |kallsyms_\*-\*-\*_lookup_\*-\*-\*_name|. Here we use both
depend on the kernel version.

Because of the *control-flow integrity*, which is a technique to prevent
the redirect execution code from the attacker, for making sure that the
indirect calls go to the expected addresses and the return addresses are
not changed. Since Linux v5.7, the kernel patched the series of
*control-flow enforcement* (CET) for x86, and some configurations of
GCC, like GCC versions 9 and 10 in Ubuntu Linux, will add with CET (the
`-fcf-protection` option) in the kernel by default. Using that GCC to
compile the kernel with retpoline off may result in CET being enabled in
the kernel. You can use the following command to check out the
`-fcf-protection` option is enabled or not:

    $ gcc -v -Q -O2 --help=target | grep protection
    Using built-in specs.
    COLLECT_*-*-*_GCC=gcc
    COLLECT_*-*-*_LTO_*-*-*_WRAPPER=/usr/lib/gcc/x86_*-*-*_64-linux-gnu/9/lto-wrapper
    ...
    gcc version 9.3.0 (Ubuntu 9.3.0-17ubuntu1~20.04)
    COLLECT_*-*-*_GCC_*-*-*_OPTIONS='-v' '-Q' '-O2' '--help=target' '-mtune=generic' '-march=x86-64'
     /usr/lib/gcc/x86_*-*-*_64-linux-gnu/9/cc1 -v ... -fcf-protection ...
     GNU C17 (Ubuntu 9.3.0-17ubuntu1~20.04) version 9.3.0 (x86_*-*-*_64-linux-gnu)
    ...

But CET should not be enabled in the kernel, it may break the Kprobes
and bpf. Consequently, CET is disabled since v5.11. To guarantee the
manual symbol lookup worked, we only use up to v5.4.

Unfortunately, since Linux v5.7 |kallsyms_\*-\*-\*_lookup_\*-\*-\*_name|
is also unexported, it needs certain trick to get the address of
|kallsyms_\*-\*-\*_lookup_\*-\*-\*_name|. If |CONFIG_\*-\*-\*_KPROBES|
is enabled, we can facilitate the retrieval of function addresses by
means of Kprobes to dynamically break into the specific kernel routine.
Kprobes inserts a breakpoint at the entry of function by replacing the
first bytes of the probed instruction. When a CPU hits the breakpoint,
registers are stored, and the control will pass to Kprobes. It passes
the addresses of the saved registers and the Kprobe struct to the
handler you defined, then executes it. Kprobes can be registered by
symbol name or address. Within the symbol name, the address will be
handled by the kernel.

Otherwise, specify the address of |sys_\*-\*-\*_call_\*-\*-\*_table|
from `/proc/kallsyms` and `/boot/System.map` into |sym| parameter.
Following is the sample usage for `/proc/kallsyms`:

    $ sudo grep sys_*-*-*_call_*-*-*_table /proc/kallsyms
    ffffffff82000280 R x32_*-*-*_sys_*-*-*_call_*-*-*_table
    ffffffff820013a0 R sys_*-*-*_call_*-*-*_table
    ffffffff820023e0 R ia32_*-*-*_sys_*-*-*_call_*-*-*_table
    $ sudo insmod syscall-steal.ko sym=0xffffffff820013a0

Using the address from `/boot/System.map`, be careful about `KASLR`
(Kernel Address Space Layout Randomization). `KASLR` may randomize the
address of kernel code and data at every boot time, such as the static
address listed in `/boot/System.map` will offset by some entropy. The
purpose of `KASLR` is to protect the kernel space from the attacker.
Without `KASLR`, the attacker may find the target address in the fixed
address easily. Then the attacker can use return-oriented programming to
insert some malicious codes to execute or receive the target data by a
tampered pointer. `KASLR` mitigates these kinds of attacks because the
attacker cannot immediately know the target address, but a brute-force
attack can still work. If the address of a symbol in `/proc/kallsyms` is
different from the address in `/boot/System.map`, `KASLR` is enabled
with the kernel, which your system running on.

    $ grep GRUB_*-*-*_CMDLINE_*-*-*_LINUX_*-*-*_DEFAULT /etc/default/grub
    GRUB_*-*-*_CMDLINE_*-*-*_LINUX_*-*-*_DEFAULT="quiet splash"
    $ sudo grep sys_*-*-*_call_*-*-*_table /boot/System.map-$(uname -r)
    ffffffff82000300 R sys_*-*-*_call_*-*-*_table
    $ sudo grep sys_*-*-*_call_*-*-*_table /proc/kallsyms
    ffffffff820013a0 R sys_*-*-*_call_*-*-*_table
    # Reboot
    $ sudo grep sys_*-*-*_call_*-*-*_table /boot/System.map-$(uname -r)
    ffffffff82000300 R sys_*-*-*_call_*-*-*_table
    $ sudo grep sys_*-*-*_call_*-*-*_table /proc/kallsyms 
    ffffffff86400300 R sys_*-*-*_call_*-*-*_table

If `KASLR` is enabled, we have to take care of the address from
`/proc/kallsyms` each time we reboot the machine. In order to use the
address from `/boot/System.map`, make sure that `KASLR` is disabled. You
can add the `nokaslr` for disabling `KASLR` in next booting time:

    $ grep GRUB_*-*-*_CMDLINE_*-*-*_LINUX_*-*-*_DEFAULT /etc/default/grub
    GRUB_*-*-*_CMDLINE_*-*-*_LINUX_*-*-*_DEFAULT="quiet splash"
    $ sudo perl -i -pe 'm/quiet/ and s//quiet nokaslr/' /etc/default/grub
    $ grep quiet /etc/default/grub
    GRUB_*-*-*_CMDLINE_*-*-*_LINUX_*-*-*_DEFAULT="quiet nokaslr splash"
    $ sudo update-grub

For more information, check out the following:

-   [Cook: Security things in Linux
    v5.3](https://lwn.net/Articles/804849/)

-   [Unexporting the system call table](https://lwn.net/Articles/12211/)

-   [Control-flow integrity for the
    kernel](https://lwn.net/Articles/810077/)

-   [Unexporting
    kallsyms-\*-\*_lookup-\*-\*_name()](https://lwn.net/Articles/813350/)

-   [Kernel Probes
    (Kprobes)](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/kprobes.txt)

-   [Kernel address space layout
    randomization](https://lwn.net/Articles/569635/)

The source code here is an example of such a kernel module. We want to
“spy” on a certain user, and to |pr_\*-\*-\*_info()| a message whenever
that user opens a file. Towards this end, we replace the system call to
open a file with our own function, called
|our_\*-\*-\*_sys_\*-\*-\*_openat|. This function checks the uid (user’s
id) of the current process, and if it is equal to the uid we spy on, it
calls |pr_\*-\*-\*_info()| to display the name of the file to be opened.
Then, either way, it calls the original |openat()| function with the
same parameters, to actually open the file.

The |init_\*-\*-\*_module| function replaces the appropriate location in
|sys_\*-\*-\*_call_\*-\*-\*_table| and keeps the original pointer in a
variable. The |cleanup_\*-\*-\*_module| function uses that variable to
restore everything back to normal. This approach is dangerous, because
of the possibility of two kernel modules changing the same system call.
Imagine we have two kernel modules, A and B. A’s openat system call will
be |A_\*-\*-\*_openat| and B’s will be |B_\*-\*-\*_openat|. Now, when A
is inserted into the kernel, the system call is replaced with
|A_\*-\*-\*_openat|, which will call the original |sys_\*-\*-\*_openat|
when it is done. Next, B is inserted into the kernel, which replaces the
system call with |B_\*-\*-\*_openat|, which will call what it thinks is
the original system call, |A_\*-\*-\*_openat|, when it’s done.

Now, if B is removed first, everything will be well — it will simply
restore the system call to |A_\*-\*-\*_openat|, which calls the
original. However, if A is removed and then B is removed, the system
will crash. A’s removal will restore the system call to the original,
|sys_\*-\*-\*_openat|, cutting B out of the loop. Then, when B is
removed, it will restore the system call to what it thinks is the
original, |A_\*-\*-\*_openat|, which is no longer in memory. At first
glance, it appears we could solve this particular problem by checking if
the system call is equal to our open function and if so not changing it
at all (so that B won’t change the system call when it is removed), but
that will cause an even worse problem. When A is removed, it sees that
the system call was changed to |B_\*-\*-\*_openat| so that it is no
longer pointing to |A_\*-\*-\*_openat|, so it will not restore it to
|sys_\*-\*-\*_openat| before it is removed from memory. Unfortunately,
|B_\*-\*-\*_openat| will still try to call |A_\*-\*-\*_openat| which is
no longer there, so that even without removing B the system would crash.

For x86 architecture, the system call table cannot be used to invoke a
system call after commit
[1e3ad78](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git/commit/?id=1e3ad78334a69b36e107232e337f9d693dcc9df2)
since v6.9. This commit has been backported to long term stable kernels,
like v5.15.154+, v6.1.85+, v6.6.26+ and v6.8.5+, see this
[answer](https://stackoverflow.com/a/78607015) for more details. In this
case, thanks to Kprobes, a hook can be used instead on the system call
entry to intercept the system call.

Note that all the related problems make syscall stealing unfeasible for
production use. In order to keep people from doing potential harmful
things |sys_\*-\*-\*_call_\*-\*-\*_table| is no longer exported. This
means, if you want to do something more than a mere dry run of this
example, you will have to patch your current kernel in order to have
|sys_\*-\*-\*_call_\*-\*-\*_table| exported.

Blocking Processes and threads
==============================

Sleep
-----

What do you do when somebody asks you for something you can not do right
away? If you are a human being and you are bothered by a human being,
the only thing you can say is: "*Not right now, I’m busy. Go away_*".
But if you are a kernel module and you are bothered by a process, you
have another possibility. You can put the process to sleep until you can
service it. After all, processes are being put to sleep by the kernel
and woken up all the time (that is the way multiple processes appear to
run on the same time on a single CPU).

This kernel module is an example of this. The file (called
`/proc/sleep`) can only be opened by a single process at a time. If the
file is already open, the kernel module calls
|wait_\*-\*-\*_event_\*-\*-\*_interruptible|. The easiest way to keep a
file open is to open it with:

tail -f

This function changes the status of the task (a task is the kernel data
structure which holds information about a process and the system call it
is in, if any) to |TASK_\*-\*-\*_INTERRUPTIBLE|, which means that the
task will not run until it is woken up somehow, and adds it to WaitQ,
the queue of tasks waiting to access the file. Then, the function calls
the scheduler to context switch to a different process, one which has
some use for the CPU.

When a process is done with the file, it closes it, and
|module_\*-\*-\*_close| is called. That function wakes up all the
processes in the queue (there’s no mechanism to only wake up one of
them). It then returns and the process which just closed the file can
continue to run. In time, the scheduler decides that that process has
had enough and gives control of the CPU to another process. Eventually,
one of the processes which was in the queue will be given control of the
CPU by the scheduler. It starts at the point right after the call to
|wait_\*-\*-\*_event_\*-\*-\*_interruptible|.

This means that the process is still in kernel mode - as far as the
process is concerned, it issued the open system call and the system call
has not returned yet. The process does not know somebody else used the
CPU for most of the time between the moment it issued the call and the
moment it returned.

It can then proceed to set a global variable to tell all the other
processes that the file is still open and go on with its life. When the
other processes get a piece of the CPU, they’ll see that global variable
and go back to sleep.

So we will use |tail -f| to keep the file open in the background, while
trying to access it with another process (again in the background, so
that we need not switch to a different vt). As soon as the first
background process is killed with kill %1 , the second is woken up, is
able to access the file and finally terminates.

To make our life more interesting, |module_\*-\*-\*_close| does not have
a monopoly on waking up the processes which wait to access the file. A
signal, such as *Ctrl +c* (**SIGINT**) can also wake up a process. This
is because we used |wait_\*-\*-\*_event_\*-\*-\*_interruptible|. We
could have used |wait_\*-\*-\*_event| instead, but that would have
resulted in extremely angry users whose *Ctrl+c*’s are ignored.

In that case, we want to return with |-EINTR| immediately. This is
important so users can, for example, kill the process before it receives
the file.

There is one more point to remember. Some times processes don’t want to
sleep, they want either to get what they want immediately, or to be told
it cannot be done. Such processes use the |O_\*-\*-\*_NONBLOCK| flag
when opening the file. The kernel is supposed to respond by returning
with the error code |-EAGAIN| from operations which would otherwise
block, such as opening the file in this example. The program
|cat_\*-\*-\*_nonblock|, available in the `examples/other` directory,
can be used to open a file with |O_\*-\*-\*_NONBLOCK|.

    $ sudo insmod sleep.ko
    $ cat_*-*-*_nonblock /proc/sleep
    Last input:
    $ tail -f /proc/sleep &
    Last input:
    Last input:
    Last input:
    Last input:
    Last input:
    Last input:
    Last input:
    tail: /proc/sleep: file truncated
    [1] 6540
    $ cat_*-*-*_nonblock /proc/sleep
    Open would block
    $ kill %1
    [1]+  Terminated              tail -f /proc/sleep
    $ cat_*-*-*_nonblock /proc/sleep
    Last input:
    $

Completions
-----------

Sometimes one thing should happen before another within a module having
multiple threads. Rather than using |/bin/sleep| commands, the kernel
has another way to do this which allows timeouts or interrupts to also
happen.

Completions as code synchronization mechanism have three main parts,
initialization of struct completion synchronization object, the waiting
or barrier part through |wait_\*-\*-\*_for_\*-\*-\*_completion()|, and
the signalling side through a call to |complete()|.

In the subsequent example, two threads are initiated: crank and
flywheel. It is imperative that the crank thread starts before the
flywheel thread. A completion state is established for each of these
threads, with a distinct completion defined for both the crank and
flywheel threads. At the exit point of each thread the respective
completion state is updated, and |wait_\*-\*-\*_for_\*-\*-\*_completion|
is used by the flywheel thread to ensure that it does not begin
prematurely. The crank thread uses the |complete_\*-\*-\*_all()|
function to update the completion, which lets the flywheel thread
continue.

So even though |flywheel_\*-\*-\*_thread| is started first you should
notice when you load this module and run |dmesg|, that turning the crank
always happens first because the flywheel thread waits for the crank
thread to complete.

There are other variations of the
|wait_\*-\*-\*_for_\*-\*-\*_completion| function, which include timeouts
or being interrupted, but this basic mechanism is enough for many common
situations without adding a lot of complexity.

Avoiding Collisions and Deadlocks
=================================

If processes running on different CPUs or in different threads try to
access the same memory, then it is possible that strange things can
happen or your system can lock up. To avoid this, various types of
mutual exclusion kernel functions are available. These indicate if a
section of code is "locked" or "unlocked" so that simultaneous attempts
to run it can not happen.

Mutex
-----

You can use kernel mutexes (mutual exclusions) in much the same manner
that you might deploy them in userland. This may be all that is needed
to avoid collisions in most cases.

Spinlocks
---------

As the name suggests, spinlocks lock up the CPU that the code is running
on, taking 100% of its resources. Because of this you should only use
the spinlock mechanism around code which is likely to take no more than
a few milliseconds to run and so will not noticeably slow anything down
from the user’s point of view.

The example here is `"irq safe"` in that if interrupts happen during the
lock then they will not be forgotten and will activate when the unlock
happens, using the |flags| variable to retain their state.

Taking 100% of a CPU’s resources comes with greater responsibility.
Situations where the kernel code monopolizes a CPU are called **atomic
contexts**. Holding a spinlock is one of those situations. Sleeping in
atomic contexts may leave the system hanging, as the occupied CPU
devotes 100% of its resources doing nothing but sleeping. In some worse
cases the system may crash. Thus, sleeping in atomic contexts is
considered a bug in the kernel. They are sometimes called
“sleep-in-atomic-context” in some materials.

Note that sleeping here is not limited to calling the sleep functions
explicitly. If subsequent function calls eventually invoke a function
that sleeps, it is also considered sleeping. Thus, it is important to
pay attention to functions being used in atomic context. There’s no
documentation recording all such functions, but code comments may help.
Sometimes you may find comments in kernel source code stating that a
function “may sleep”, “might sleep”, or more explicitly “the caller
should not hold a spinlock”. Those comments are hints that a function
may implicitly sleep and must not be called in atomic contexts.

Read and write locks
--------------------

Read and write locks are specialised kinds of spinlocks so that you can
exclusively read from something or write to something. Like the earlier
spinlocks example, the one below shows an "irq safe" situation in which
if other functions were triggered from irqs which might also read and
write to whatever you are concerned with then they would not disrupt the
logic. As before it is a good idea to keep anything done within the lock
as short as possible so that it does not hang up the system and cause
users to start revolting against the tyranny of your module.

Of course, if you know for sure that there are no functions triggered by
irqs which could possibly interfere with your logic then you can use the
simpler |read_\*-\*-\*_lock(&myrwlock)| and
|read_\*-\*-\*_unlock(&myrwlock)| or the corresponding write functions.

Atomic operations
-----------------

If you are doing simple arithmetic: adding, subtracting or bitwise
operations, then there is another way in the multi-CPU and
multi-hyperthreaded world to stop other parts of the system from messing
with your mojo. By using atomic operations you can be confident that
your addition, subtraction or bit flip did actually happen and was not
overwritten by some other shenanigans. An example is shown below.

Before the C11 standard adopts the built-in atomic types, the kernel
already provided a small set of atomic types by using a bunch of tricky
architecture-specific codes. Implementing the atomic types by C11
atomics may allow the kernel to throw away the architecture-specific
codes and letting the kernel code be more friendly to the people who
understand the standard. But there are some problems, such as the memory
model of the kernel doesn’t match the model formed by the C11 atomics.
For further details, see:

-   [kernel documentation of atomic
    types](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/atomic_*-*-*_t.txt)

-   [Time to move to C11 atomics?](https://lwn.net/Articles/691128/)

-   [Atomic usage patterns in the
    kernel](https://lwn.net/Articles/698315/)

Replacing Print Macros
======================

Replacement
-----------

In Section
<a href="#sec:preparation" data-reference-type="ref" data-reference="sec:preparation">1.7</a>,
it was noted that the X Window System and kernel module programming are
not conducive to integration. This remains valid during the development
of kernel modules. However, in practical scenarios, the necessity
emerges to relay messages to the tty (teletype) originating the module
load command.

The term “tty” originates from *teletype*, which initially referred to a
combined keyboard-printer for Unix system communication. Today, it
signifies a text stream abstraction employed by Unix programs,
encompassing physical terminals, xterms in X displays, and network
connections like SSH.

To achieve this, the “current” pointer is leveraged to access the active
task’s tty structure. Within this structure lies a pointer to a string
write function, facilitating the string’s transmission to the tty.

Flashing keyboard LEDs
----------------------

In certain conditions, you may desire a simpler and more direct way to
communicate to the external world. Flashing keyboard LEDs can be such a
solution: It is an immediate way to attract attention or to display a
status condition. Keyboard LEDs are present on every hardware, they are
always visible, they do not need any setup, and their use is rather
simple and non-intrusive, compared to writing to a tty or a file.

From v4.14 to v4.15, the timer API made a series of changes to improve
memory safety. A buffer overflow in the area of a |timer_\*-\*-\*_list|
structure may be able to overwrite the |function| and |data| fields,
providing the attacker with a way to use return-oriented programming
(ROP) to call arbitrary functions within the kernel. Also, the function
prototype of the callback, containing a |unsigned long| argument, will
prevent work from any type checking. Furthermore, the function prototype
with |unsigned long| argument may be an obstacle to the forward-edge
protection of *control-flow integrity*. Thus, it is better to use a
unique prototype to separate from the cluster that takes an |unsigned
long| argument. The timer callback should be passed a pointer to the
|timer_\*-\*-\*_list| structure rather than an |unsigned long| argument.
Then, it wraps all the information the callback needs, including the
|timer_\*-\*-\*_list| structure, into a larger structure, and it can use
the |container_\*-\*-\*_of| macro instead of the |unsigned long| value.
For more information see: [Improving the kernel timers
API](https://lwn.net/Articles/735887/).

Before Linux v4.14, |setup_\*-\*-\*_timer| was used to initialize the
timer and the |timer_\*-\*-\*_list| structure looked like:

struct timer_\*-\*-\*_list unsigned long expires; void
(\*function)(unsigned long); unsigned long data; u32 flags; /\* ... \*/
;

void setup_\*-\*-\*_timer(struct timer_\*-\*-\*_list \*timer, void
(\*callback)(unsigned long), unsigned long data);

Since Linux v4.14, |timer_\*-\*-\*_setup| is adopted and the kernel step
by step converting to |timer_\*-\*-\*_setup| from
|setup_\*-\*-\*_timer|. One of the reasons why API was changed is it
need to coexist with the old version interface. Moreover, the
|timer_\*-\*-\*_setup| was implemented by |setup_\*-\*-\*_timer| at
first.

void timer_\*-\*-\*_setup(struct timer_\*-\*-\*_list \*timer, void
(\*callback)(struct timer_\*-\*-\*_list \*), unsigned int flags);

The |setup_\*-\*-\*_timer| was then removed since v4.15. As a result,
the |timer_\*-\*-\*_list| structure had changed to the following.

struct timer_\*-\*-\*_list unsigned long expires; void
(\*function)(struct timer_\*-\*-\*_list \*); u32 flags; /\* ... \*/ ;

The following source code illustrates a minimal kernel module which,
when loaded, starts blinking the keyboard LEDs until it is unloaded.

If none of the examples in this chapter fit your debugging needs, there
might yet be some other tricks to try. Ever wondered what
|CONFIG_\*-\*-\*_LL_\*-\*-\*_DEBUG| in |make menuconfig| is good for? If
you activate that you get low level access to the serial port. While
this might not sound very powerful by itself, you can patch
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/kernel/printk.c)
or any other essential syscall to print ASCII characters, thus making it
possible to trace virtually everything what your code does over a serial
line. If you find yourself porting the kernel to some new and former
unsupported architecture, this is usually amongst the first things that
should be implemented. Logging over a netconsole might also be worth a
try.

While you have seen lots of stuff that can be used to aid debugging
here, there are some things to be aware of. Debugging is almost always
intrusive. Adding debug code can change the situation enough to make the
bug seem to disappear. Thus, you should keep debug code to a minimum and
make sure it does not show up in production code.

Scheduling Tasks
================

There are two main ways of running tasks: tasklets and work queues.
Tasklets are a quick and easy way of scheduling a single function to be
run. For example, when triggered from an interrupt, whereas work queues
are more complicated but also better suited to running multiple things
in a sequence.

It is possible that in future tasklets may be replaced by *threaded
irqs*. However, discussion about that has been ongoing since 2007
([Eliminating tasklets](https://lwn.net/Articles/239633)), so do not
hold your breath. See the section
<a href="#sec:irq" data-reference-type="ref" data-reference="sec:irq">15.1</a>
if you wish to avoid the tasklet debate.

Tasklets
--------

Here is an example tasklet module. The |tasklet_\*-\*-\*_fn| function
runs for a few seconds. In the meantime, execution of the
|example_\*-\*-\*_tasklet_\*-\*-\*_init| function may continue to the
exit point, depending on whether it is interrupted by **softirq**.

So with this example loaded |dmesg| should show:

    tasklet example init
    Example tasklet starts
    Example tasklet init continues...
    Example tasklet ends

Although tasklet is easy to use, it comes with several drawbacks, and
developers are discussing about getting rid of tasklet in linux kernel.
The tasklet callback runs in atomic context, inside a software
interrupt, meaning that it cannot sleep or access user-space data, so
not all work can be done in a tasklet handler. Also, the kernel only
allows one instance of any given tasklet to be running at any given
time; multiple different tasklet callbacks can run in parallel.

In recent kernels, tasklets can be replaced by workqueues, timers, or
threaded interrupts.[1] While the removal of tasklets remains a
longer-term goal, the current kernel contains more than a hundred uses
of tasklets. Now developers are proceeding with the API changes and the
macro |DECLARE_\*-\*-\*_TASKLET_\*-\*-\*_OLD| exists for compatibility.
For further information, see <https://lwn.net/Articles/830964/>.

Work queues
-----------

To add a task to the scheduler we can use a workqueue. The kernel then
uses the Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS) to execute work within the
queue.

Interrupt Handlers
==================

Interrupt Handlers
------------------

Except for the last chapter, everything we did in the kernel so far we
have done as a response to a process asking for it, either by dealing
with a special file, sending an |ioctl()|, or issuing a system call. But
the job of the kernel is not just to respond to process requests.
Another job, which is every bit as important, is to speak to the
hardware connected to the machine.

There are two types of interaction between the CPU and the rest of the
computer’s hardware. The first type is when the CPU gives orders to the
hardware, the other is when the hardware needs to tell the CPU
something. The second, called interrupts, is much harder to implement
because it has to be dealt with when convenient for the hardware, not
the CPU. Hardware devices typically have a very small amount of RAM, and
if you do not read their information when available, it is lost.

Under Linux, hardware interrupts are called IRQ’s (Interrupt ReQuests).
There are two types of IRQ’s, short and long. A short IRQ is one which
is expected to take a very short period of time, during which the rest
of the machine will be blocked and no other interrupts will be handled.
A long IRQ is one which can take longer, and during which other
interrupts may occur (but not interrupts from the same device). If at
all possible, it is better to declare an interrupt handler to be long.

When the CPU receives an interrupt, it stops whatever it is doing
(unless it is processing a more important interrupt, in which case it
will deal with this one only when the more important one is done), saves
certain parameters on the stack and calls the interrupt handler. This
means that certain things are not allowed in the interrupt handler
itself, because the system is in an unknown state. Linux kernel solves
the problem by splitting interrupt handling into two parts. The first
part executes right away and masks the interrupt line. Hardware
interrupts must be handled quickly, and that is why we need the second
part to handle the heavy work deferred from an interrupt handler.
Historically, BH (Linux naming for *Bottom Halves*) statistically
book-keeps the deferred functions. **Softirq** and its higher level
abstraction, **Tasklet**, replace BH since Linux 2.3.

The way to implement this is to call |request_\*-\*-\*_irq()| to get
your interrupt handler called when the relevant IRQ is received.

In practice IRQ handling can be a bit more complex. Hardware is often
designed in a way that chains two interrupt controllers, so that all the
IRQs from interrupt controller B are cascaded to a certain IRQ from
interrupt controller A. Of course, that requires that the kernel finds
out which IRQ it really was afterwards and that adds overhead. Other
architectures offer some special, very low overhead, so called "fast
IRQ" or FIQs. To take advantage of them requires handlers to be written
in assembly language, so they do not really fit into the kernel. They
can be made to work similar to the others, but after that procedure,
they are no longer any faster than "common" IRQs. SMP enabled kernels
running on systems with more than one processor need to solve another
truckload of problems. It is not enough to know if a certain IRQs has
happened, it’s also important to know what CPU(s) it was for. People
still interested in more details, might want to refer to "APIC" now.

This function receives the IRQ number, the name of the function, flags,
a name for `/proc/interrupts` and a parameter to be passed to the
interrupt handler. Usually there is a certain number of IRQs available.
How many IRQs there are is hardware-dependent.

The flags can be used for specify behaviors of the IRQ. For example, use
|IRQF_\*-\*-\*_SHARED| to indicate you are willing to share the IRQ with
other interrupt handlers (usually because a number of hardware devices
sit on the same IRQ); use the |IRQF_\*-\*-\*_ONESHOT| to indicate that
the IRQ is not reenabled after the handler finished. It should be noted
that in some materials, you may encouter another set of IRQ flags named
with the |SA| prefix. For example, the |SA_\*-\*-\*_SHIRQ| and the
|SA_\*-\*-\*_INTERRUPT|. Those are the the IRQ flags in the older
kernels. They have been removed completely. Today only the |IRQF| flags
are in use. This function will only succeed if there is not already a
handler on this IRQ, or if you are both willing to share.

Detecting button presses
------------------------

Many popular single board computers, such as Raspberry Pi or
Beagleboards, have a bunch of GPIO pins. Attaching buttons to those and
then having a button press do something is a classic case in which you
might need to use interrupts, so that instead of having the CPU waste
time and battery power polling for a change in input state, it is better
for the input to trigger the CPU to then run a particular handling
function.

Here is an example where buttons are connected to GPIO numbers 17 and 18
and an LED is connected to GPIO 4. You can change those numbers to
whatever is appropriate for your board.

Bottom Half
-----------

Suppose you want to do a bunch of stuff inside of an interrupt routine.
A common way to do that without rendering the interrupt unavailable for
a significant duration is to combine it with a tasklet. This pushes the
bulk of the work off into the scheduler.

The example below modifies the previous example to also run an
additional task when an interrupt is triggered.

Threaded IRQ
------------

Threaded IRQ is a mechanism to organize both top-half and bottom-half of
an IRQ at once. A threaded IRQ splits the one handler in
|request_\*-\*-\*_irq()| into two: one for the top-half, the other for
the bottom-half. The |request_\*-\*-\*_threaded_\*-\*-\*_irq()| is the
function for using threaded IRQs. Two handlers are registered at once in
the |request_\*-\*-\*_threaded_\*-\*-\*_irq()|.

Those two handlers run in different context. The top-half handler runs
in interrupt context. It’s the equivalence of the handler passed to the
|request_\*-\*-\*_irq()|. The bottom-half handler on the other hand runs
in its own thread. This thread is created on registration of a threaded
IRQ. Its sole purpose is to run this bottom-half handler. This is where
a threaded IRQ is “threaded”. If |IRQ_\*-\*-\*_WAKE_\*-\*-\*_THREAD| is
returned by the top-half handler, that bottom-half serving thread will
wake up. The thread then runs the bottom-half handler.

Here is an example of how to do the same thing as before, with top and
bottom halves, but using threads.

A threaded IRQ is registered using
|request_\*-\*-\*_threaded_\*-\*-\*_irq()|. This function only takes one
additional parameter than the |request_\*-\*-\*_irq()| – the bottom-half
handling function that runs in its own thread. In this example it is the
|button_\*-\*-\*_bottom_\*-\*-\*_half()|. Usage of other parameters are
the same as |request_\*-\*-\*_irq()|.

Presence of both handlers is not mandatory. If either of them is not
needed, pass the |NULL| instead. A |NULL| top-half handler implies that
no action is taken except to wake up the bottom-half serving thread,
which runs the bottom-half handler. Similarly, a |NULL| bottom-half
handler effectively acts as if |request_\*-\*-\*_irq()| were used. In
fact, this is how |request_\*-\*-\*_irq()| is implemented.

Note that passing |NULL| to both handlers is considered an error and
will make registration fail.

Virtual Input Device Driver
===========================

The input device driver is a module that provides a way to communicate
with the interaction device via the event. For example, the keyboard can
send the press or release event to tell the kernel what we want to do.
The input device driver will allocate a new input structure with
|input_\*-\*-\*_allocate_\*-\*-\*_device()| and sets up input bitfields,
device id, version, etc. After that, registers it by calling
|input_\*-\*-\*_register_\*-\*-\*_device()|.

Here is an example, vinput, It is an API to allow easy development of
virtual input drivers. The drivers needs to export a
|vinput_\*-\*-\*_device()| that contains the virtual device name and
|vinput_\*-\*-\*_ops| structure that describes:

-   the init function: |init()|

-   the input event injection function: |send()|

-   the readback function: |read()|

Then using |vinput_\*-\*-\*_register_\*-\*-\*_device()| and
|vinput_\*-\*-\*_unregister_\*-\*-\*_device()| will add a new device to
the list of support virtual input devices.

int init(struct vinput \*);

This function is passed a |struct vinput| already initialized with an
allocated |struct input_\*-\*-\*_dev|. The |init()| function is
responsible for initializing the capabilities of the input device and
register it.

int send(struct vinput \*, char \*, int);

This function will receive a user string to interpret and inject the
event using the |input_\*-\*-\*_report_\*-\*-\*_XXXX| or
|input_\*-\*-\*_event| call. The string is already copied from user.

int read(struct vinput \*, char \*, int);

This function is used for debugging and should fill the buffer parameter
with the last event sent in the virtual input device format. The buffer
will then be copied to user.

vinput devices are created and destroyed using sysfs. And, event
injection is done through a `/dev` node. The device name will be used by
the userland to export a new virtual input device.

The |class_\*-\*-\*_attribute| structure is similar to other attribute
types we talked about in section
<a href="#sec:sysfs" data-reference-type="ref" data-reference="sec:sysfs">8</a>:

struct class_\*-\*-\*_attribute struct attribute attr; ssize_\*-\*-\*_t
(\*show)(struct class \*class, struct class_\*-\*-\*_attribute \*attr,
char \*buf); ssize_\*-\*-\*_t (\*store)(struct class \*class, struct
class_\*-\*-\*_attribute \*attr, const char \*buf, size_\*-\*-\*_t
count); ;

In `vinput.c`, the macro
|CLASS_\*-\*-\*_ATTR_\*-\*-\*_WO(export/unexport)| defined in
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/include/linux/device.h)
(in this case, `device.h` is included in
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/include/linux/input.h))
will generate the |class_\*-\*-\*_attribute| structures which are named
`class_*-*-*_attr_*-*-*_export/unexport`. Then, put them into
|vinput_\*-\*-\*_class_\*-\*-\*_attrs| array and the macro
|ATTRIBUTE_\*-\*-\*_GROUPS(vinput_\*-\*-\*_class)| will generate the
|struct attribute_\*-\*-\*_group vinput_\*-\*-\*_class_\*-\*-\*_group|
that should be assigned in |vinput_\*-\*-\*_class|. Finally, call
|class_\*-\*-\*_register(&vinput_\*-\*-\*_class)| to create attributes
in sysfs.

To create a `vinputX` sysfs entry and `/dev` node.

echo "vkbd" | sudo tee /sys/class/vinput/export

To unexport the device, just echo its id in unexport:

echo "0" | sudo tee /sys/class/vinput/unexport

Here the virtual keyboard is one of example to use vinput. It supports
all |KEY_\*-\*-\*_MAX| keycodes. The injection format is the
|KEY_\*-\*-\*_CODE| such as defined in
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/include/linux/input.h).
A positive value means |KEY_\*-\*-\*_PRESS| while a negative value is a
|KEY_\*-\*-\*_RELEASE|. The keyboard supports repetition when the key
stays pressed for too long. The following demonstrates how simulation
work.

Simulate a key press on "g" (|KEY_\*-\*-\*_G| = 34):

echo "+34" | sudo tee /dev/vinput0

Simulate a key release on "g" (|KEY_\*-\*-\*_G| = 34):

echo "-34" | sudo tee /dev/vinput0

Standardizing the interfaces: The Device Model
==============================================

Up to this point we have seen all kinds of modules doing all kinds of
things, but there was no consistency in their interfaces with the rest
of the kernel. To impose some consistency such that there is at minimum
a standardized way to start, suspend and resume a device model was
added. An example is shown below, and you can use this as a template to
add your own suspend, resume or other interface functions.

Optimizations
=============

Likely and Unlikely conditions
------------------------------

Sometimes you might want your code to run as quickly as possible,
especially if it is handling an interrupt or doing something which might
cause noticeable latency. If your code contains boolean conditions and
if you know that the conditions are almost always likely to evaluate as
either |true| or |false|, then you can allow the compiler to optimize
for this using the |likely| and |unlikely| macros. For example, when
allocating memory you are almost always expecting this to succeed.

bvl = bvec_\*-\*-\*_alloc(gfp_\*-\*-\*_mask, nr_\*-\*-\*_iovecs, &idx);
if (unlikely(_bvl)) mempool_\*-\*-\*_free(bio, bio_\*-\*-\*_pool); bio =
NULL; goto out;

When the |unlikely| macro is used, the compiler alters its machine
instruction output, so that it continues along the false branch and only
jumps if the condition is true. That avoids flushing the processor
pipeline. The opposite happens if you use the |likely| macro.

Static keys
-----------

Static keys allow us to enable or disable kernel code paths based on the
runtime state of key. Its APIs have been available since 2010 (most
architectures are already supported), use self-modifying code to
eliminate the overhead of cache and branch prediction. The most typical
use case of static keys is for performance-sensitive kernel code, such
as tracepoints, context switching, networking, etc. These hot paths of
the kernel often contain branches and can be optimized easily using this
technique. Before we can use static keys in the kernel, we need to make
sure that gcc supports |asm goto| inline assembly, and the following
kernel configurations are set:

CONFIG_\*-\*-\*_JUMP_\*-\*-\*_LABEL=y
CONFIG_\*-\*-\*_HAVE_\*-\*-\*_ARCH_\*-\*-\*_JUMP_\*-\*-\*_LABEL=y
CONFIG_\*-\*-\*_HAVE_\*-\*-\*_ARCH_\*-\*-\*_JUMP_\*-\*-\*_LABEL_\*-\*-\*_RELATIVE=y

To declare a static key, we need to define a global variable using the
|DEFINE_\*-\*-\*_STATIC_\*-\*-\*_KEY_\*-\*-\*_FALSE| or
|DEFINE_\*-\*-\*_STATIC_\*-\*-\*_KEY_\*-\*-\*_TRUE| macro defined in
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/include/linux/jump\_*-*-*_label.h).
This macro initializes the key with the given initial value, which is
either false or true, respectively. For example, to declare a static key
with an initial value of false, we can use the following code:

DEFINE_\*-\*-\*_STATIC_\*-\*-\*_KEY_\*-\*-\*_FALSE(fkey);

Once the static key has been declared, we need to add branching code to
the module that uses the static key. For example, the code includes a
fastpath, where a no-op instruction will be generated at compile time as
the key is initialized to false and the branch is unlikely to be taken.

pr_\*-\*-\*_info("fastpath 1"); if
(static_\*-\*-\*_branch_\*-\*-\*_unlikely(&fkey)) pr_\*-\*-\*_alert("do
unlikely thing"); pr_\*-\*-\*_info("fastpath 2");

If the key is enabled at runtime by calling
|static_\*-\*-\*_branch_\*-\*-\*_enable(&fkey)|, the fastpath will be
patched with an unconditional jump instruction to the slowpath code
|pr_\*-\*-\*_alert|, so the branch will always be taken until the key is
disabled again.

The following kernel module derived from `chardev.c`, demonstrates how
the static key works.

To check the state of the static key, we can use the
`/dev/key_*-*-*_state` interface.

cat /dev/key_\*-\*-\*_state

This will display the current state of the key, which is disabled by
default.

To change the state of the static key, we can perform a write operation
on the file:

echo enable &gt; /dev/key_\*-\*-\*_state

This will enable the static key, causing the code path to switch from
the fastpath to the slowpath.

In some cases, the key is enabled or disabled at initialization and
never changed, we can declare a static key as read-only, which means
that it can only be toggled in the module init function. To declare a
read-only static key, we can use the
|DEFINE_\*-\*-\*_STATIC_\*-\*-\*_KEY_\*-\*-\*_FALSE_\*-\*-\*_RO| or
|DEFINE_\*-\*-\*_STATIC_\*-\*-\*_KEY_\*-\*-\*_TRUE_\*-\*-\*_RO| macro
instead. Attempts to change the key at runtime will result in a page
fault. For more information, see [Static
keys](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/static-keys.txt)

Common Pitfalls
===============

Using standard libraries
------------------------

You can not do that. In a kernel module, you can only use kernel
functions which are the functions you can see in `/proc/kallsyms`.

Disabling interrupts
--------------------

You might need to do this for a short time and that is OK, but if you do
not enable them afterwards, your system will be stuck and you will have
to power it off.

Where To Go From Here?
======================

For those deeply interested in kernel programming,
[kernelnewbies.org](https://kernelnewbies.org) and the
[](https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux.git/tree/Documentation)
subdirectory within the kernel source code are highly recommended.
Although the latter may not always be straightforward, it serves as a
valuable initial step for further exploration. Echoing Linus Torvalds’
perspective, the most effective method to understand the kernel is
through personal examination of the source code.

Contributions to this guide are welcome, especially if there are any
significant inaccuracies identified. To contribute or report an issue,
please initiate an issue at <https://github.com/sysprog21/lkmpg>. Pull
requests are greatly appreciated.

Happy hacking_

[1] The goal of threaded interrupts is to push more of the work to
separate threads, so that the minimum needed for acknowledging an
interrupt is reduced, and therefore the time spent handling the
interrupt (where it can’t handle any other interrupts at the same time)
is reduced. See <https://lwn.net/Articles/302043/>.